tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-56665232195656770572024-03-13T21:11:37.234-07:00PengetahuanMahreta Adi Kuncorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09866176018145651029noreply@blogger.comBlogger11125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5666523219565677057.post-67543322848743869792009-12-29T08:30:00.000-08:002009-12-29T08:32:38.745-08:00Wanita adalah ciptaan tuhan yang paling berharga“”Mengapa ku menghormati wanita lebih dari apapun……..””<br />Karena Tuhan menciptkan wanita dengan melembur selama 6 hari<br />Dan wanita telah menjadi ciptaan paling istimewa dihadapaNya.<br />“Ketika malaikat bertanya kepada Tuhan; Mengapa kau ciptakan ia(wanita) terlihat begitu rapuh??”<br />Oooo…. Tidak, engkau belum mengetahui kekuatan ciptaanku (wanita) yang bahkan melebihi ciptaanku yang lainya…………<br />Wanita ini akan mempunyai kekuatan untuk mempesona lelaki<br />Dia dapat mengatasi beban bahkan melebihi laki – laki<br />Dia mampu menyimpan kebahagiaan dan pendapatnya sendiri<br />Dia mampu tersenyum bahkan saat hatinya menjerit<br />Mampu menyanyi saat menangis, menangis saat terharu, bahkan tertawa saat ketakutan<br />Dia berkorban demi orang yang dicintainya.<br />Mampu berdiri melawan ketidakadilan<br />Dia tidak menolak kalau melihat yang lebih baik<br />Dia menerjunkan dirinya untuk keluarganya<br />Dia membawa temanya yang sakit untuk berobat<br />Cintanya tanpa Syarat…………………..<br />Dia menangis saat melihat anaknya adalah pemenang<br />Dia girang dan bersorak saat melihat kawanya tertawa<br />Dia begitu bahagia mendengar kelahiran<br />Hatinya begitu sedih mendengar berita sakit dan kematian<br />Tetapi dia selalu punya kekuatan untuk mengatasi hidup<br />Dia tahu bahwa sebuah kehangatan dan pelukan dapat menyembuhkan mereka..<br />“HANYA ADA SATU HAL YANG KURANG DARI WANITA”<br />DIA LUPA BETAPA BERHARGANYA DIAMahreta Adi Kuncorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09866176018145651029noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5666523219565677057.post-51021553949266410852009-11-02T00:04:00.000-08:002009-11-02T00:05:49.296-08:00contoh tugas perbandingan politikName : Mahreta Adi Kuncoro<br />NIM : 20080510012<br /><br />A Comparative Politic Study on the Parliamentary System of Japan and Australia<br />I. Background<br />Parliamentary system is one of the governmental systems putting the parliament as a crucial role in the government. In this case, the parliament has the authority in appointing the prime minister and dethroning it. In the presidential system, a president has an authority on the governmental system, but in the parliamentary system a president is only symbol of head of state. <br />The parliamentary system is distinguished by the branch of executive government, legislative branch, or parliament. Therefore there is no clear separation of power between the executive and the legislative branch. It has the better system than the presidential ones for its flexibility and the quick response to the public. And its weakness is tending to the unstable government.<br />Basically, even if the state has the same governmental system but it might be different in its implementation. For instance Australia and Japan, they have same governmental system which is monarchy constitutional but they have different implementation in the governmental structure. The governmental system of Australia consists of the governor general, senate, and House of Representative, and they still have to consult with the legislative council consisting of federal government, the prime minister and its ministers. While in Japan the parliamentary has the equilibrium position between the common council and the high ones. <br />The paper attempts to study about the differences of parliamentary system implemented in Japan and Australia. Even though both countries have the same system which is monarchy constitutional but they have differences in their implementation and the government structure. <br />II. Theoretical Framework<br />S.L Witman dan J.J Wuest explain that the parliamentary system has 4 characteristics:<br />1. It is based upon the diffusions of powers principle.<br />2. There is mutual responsibility between the executive and the legislature; hence the executive may dissolve the legislature or he must resign together with the rest of the cabinet when his policies or no longer accepted by the majority of the membership in the legislature.<br />3. There is also mutual responsibility between the executive and the cabinet.<br />4. The executive (Prime Minister, Premier, or Chancellor) is chosen by the titular head of the State (Monarch or President), according to the support of majority in the legislature.<br />III. Research Question<br />Why the Australian parliamentary system is different from the Japan parliamentary system?<br />IV. Hypothesis<br />Because they have a different government structure which affects to the implementation of parliamentary system.<br />V. References<br />Syafi’ie, Inu Kencana, Ilmu Politik, Jakarta, PT Rineka Cipta, 2000<br />Maridis, Roy C, Perbandingan Politik, Surabaya, Erlangga, 1992<br />Pamdji, S, Perbandingan Pemerintahan, Jakarta, PT Bina Aksara, 1985<br />Soehino, Ilmu Negara, Yogyakarta, Liberty, 1991<br />http://id.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20081201232300AAJxrX3<br />http://www.abc.net.au/ra/federasi/tema1/aus_pol_chart.pdf<br />http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1589816Mahreta Adi Kuncorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09866176018145651029noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5666523219565677057.post-77319941935520442162009-10-29T00:59:00.000-07:002009-10-29T01:01:16.500-07:00The Role of Youth in Building the ASEAN community 2015The Role of Youth in Building the ASEAN community 2015<br />Mahreta Adi Kuncoro<br />Background<br /> The establishment of the ASEAN Community aims to improve the welfare of all members of ASEAN through economic cooperation and intra-trade as well as among ASEAN members in order to deal with the competition on the economic scope of regional and global. Thus, ASEAN has a strong commitment to realize the mutual objectives through the high competitiveness of each in the context of holistic synergy. If this can be realized, the strategic role of ASEAN free market will have a broad cooperation to make the regional economy more robust and mutually beneficial. <br /> There are three major pillars which lead to the ASEAN Community establishment. There are ASEAN Economic Community (AEC), ASEAN Security Community (ASC) and ASEAN Socio Cultural Community (ASCC). These three major pillars directly affect the education sector, meaning that Indonesian student can freely study in the ASEAN countries and vice versa. Therefore, the youth plays a significant role in developing the education quality in dealing with the ASEAN community 2015 which full of competitiveness. <br />The Youth and the Importance of Education<br /> In dealing with the ASEAN community in 2015, the role of youth is absolutely needed to develop every aspect of the nation. It’s inevitable that the human resource is something crucial. And the most important thing is on how to prepare the youth for the better of tomorrow and on how to improve the human resources.<br />The role of youth and education are two factors that can not be separated from one another. Improving the quality of education is the best way to enhance the quality of human resources of Indonesia, it is highly expected that with the increasing of nation's human resources, it will brings about to the maturity of Indonesian people in facing the economic competition as well as the education sector.<br /> Based on the global competitiveness report of The World Economic Forum (WEF) 31 October 2007, the competitiveness ranking of Indonesia to The Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) is going down comparing with 2006. From 131 countries, Indonesian Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) is on the 54th rank. It is describing the overall of 12 pillars assessed by WEF. For the basic requirement in the sub index of A, Indonesia is on the 82nd rank with the lowest level of infrastructure in the 91st rank, the macro economic stability in the 89th rank, the health and the basic education in the 78th rank. As for the efficiency enhancer in the sub index of B, the Indonesian technology readiness is in the 75th. Although there are pillars that are on the low ranking, but there is also a pillar in the top – twenty of efficiency enhancers in the sub index of B. It is the market scale which is in the 15th rank. It means that Indonesian market opportunity is potentially big but still can not be used effectively. <br />Therefore, with the various problems and the Indonesian people shortcomings, the increasing of human resources is absolutely necessary in dealing with the ASEAN community which full of competition in a variety of things; economic, cultural, technology, and also education, due to a human role as a major actor in the whole wheel of a nation. Because based on UNESCO data (2000) on the Human Development Index which is involving the rank of education, health, and income per head shows that the human development index decreased progressively in Indonesia. Among the 174 countries in the world, Indonesia is in the 102nd rank (1996), 99th rank (1997), 105th rank (1998), 109th rank (1999).<br /> The improving of human resources quality can be achieved through the enhancing of educational sector. In order to improve the education quality there are two integrated factors; the role of youth as the main actor and also the government that functions as a facilitator to support educational infrastructure and media needed for the achievement of education quality.<br />Basically, besides the function of youth as the agent of change, the government role is absolutely required to improve the quality of human resources in welcoming the ASEAN community 2015. The government has to plan 2 programs and undertake it as well as possible. First is the improving of socialization on the importance of Indonesian readiness to the youth in dealing with the ASEAN community 2015. It can be perpetuated by the intensive socialization throughout the educational institutions. The second is improving the educational infrastructure and planning on the IT – based education. It can be achieved by allocating more national budget to the education sector.<br />The Socialization of youth through the educational institutions in Indonesia on the readiness of the ASEAN community 2015 is needed. It’s completely expected by the intensive socialization of the government, it will stimulate the youth or students to learn more and improve their English skill. Because the English-speaking ability as the international language is required by every single of students in order to compete and play an active role in a regional scope as well as international. So that by the increasing of education quality, they will be ready to welcome their futures and they will be the driving wheel of a nation with a high quality and dedication to the State. <br />Building up the human resources through education in early years is needed because the declining of students achievement in the world view. In the case of achievements, September 2004 the United Nations for Development Program (UNDP) has announced the results of studies on the quality of people simultaneously around the world through the report, entitled Human Development Report 2004. In the annual report Indonesia only on the 111th position from 177 countries. If it is compared with neighboring countries only, the position of Indonesia is far below it. In the international scale, IEA (International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement) in East Asia showed that the reading skills of elementary students for the fourth grade are on the lowest rank. The average reading test scores for elementary school students: 75.5 (Hong Kong), 74.0 (Singapore), 65.1 (Thailand), 52.6 (Philippines), and 51.7 (Indonesia)<br />The provision of infrastructures by the government to students through educational institutions is truly important. the provision of infrastructure by the government such as the developing of language laboratories, constructing of schools buildings that are not eligible to use, the provision of free school and creating schools with the international standard are expected to support the students academic activities. Besides that the government should improve the quality of teachers as the main student instructors and increase their welfare.<br />Closing<br /> In welcoming the ASEAN community 2015, we do believe that the youth has a significant role. But we have to analyze deeply to the root of the problem and it is the human resources. The human resources development can be achieved by improving the education sector. The education has the great influence to the youth. It is functioning as the former of the character and the framework of thinking. Therefore the Indonesian government should prepare the present youth for the better of tomorrow by improving the education quality.Mahreta Adi Kuncorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09866176018145651029noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5666523219565677057.post-3234280661382259662009-10-29T00:58:00.000-07:002009-10-29T00:59:38.187-07:00The Guided Democracy in the Old orderThe Guided Democracy in the Old order<br />1. Introduction<br />The guided democracy is one of the political system in the old order, all decisions are centralized in the only president. In 1959 Soekarno dissolved the parliamentary system and decided that the constitution is under the president decree. Soekarno also dissolved the constituents which has the right to form the new constitution. Soekarno declared to back to the previous constitution of 1945 Four days later, a working cabinet with Sukarno as prime minister was announced, and in July, the National Council and Supreme Advisory Council were established. Although the parties continued to exist, only the PKI had any real strength. In the other hand soekarno also strengthen the national Army<br />Communist party of Indonesia welcomed happily this decision and Soekarno regarded actually the communist party of Indonesia is deserved to form the conception or it is well known by Nasionalism, religion and Communism (NASAKOM).<br />2. The major task of Guided Democracy<br />The guided democracy is implemented in Indonesia during 1959 – 1966. It was started by the president decree on 5 of July in 1959. The guided democracy basically has several tasks to solved because at that time the national condition is really not in stable condition. The major task of the guided democracy are;<br />a. The guided democracy has to return back the stability of the nation as the continuation of liberal democracy and the parliamentary democracy<br />b. The guided democracy is the result of reaction toward the parliamentary democracy. It was caused by several factors such as the limited authority for the president to control and govern the country because basically president is only the head of state. Secondly, the governance authority is governed by the political party.<br /><br />3. The implementation of Guided Democracy<br />a. The party authority is limited<br />b. The president has the absolute privilege and right as the head of state and the head of parliamentary<br />c. The government form the governmental board such as MPRS,DPAS, DPRGR dan Front Nasional.<br /><br />4. The abuses in implementing the guided democracy<br /><br />a. The president position<br />Based on the constitution of 1945 the president position is under MPR, but in the reality it is really opposing with the constitution of 1945, because MPRS bows to president in the decision making process. it is obviously shown by appointing the head of MPRS and the vice of prime minister and also by appointing the representative of political and national army to sit in the house of representative.<br /><br />b. The forming of MPRS<br />The president also formed MPRD based on the president decision no 2 1959. It is really contradictory with the constitution of 1945. Because basically based on UUD 1945 that the appointing of MPRS members is by holding the general election.<br /><br />c. The dissolve of DPR and the forming of DPR-GR<br />DPR is dissolved because they refuse RAPBN in 1960 which proposed by the government. President then declared to dissolve DPR and formed DPR-GR which all the members are chosen by the president. The rule of DPR-GR members is also determined by the president. The president measure is really contradictory with UUD 1945, because based on the UUD 1945 the president can’t dissolved the DPR<br /><br />d. The forming of Front Nasional<br />The front nasional is formed by the president decree no 13 1959, the national Front is one of the organization which really strived to uphold the proclamation aims and the aims of UUD 1945. The purpose is to join force every nayional potency to be the huge force to succeed the national development. In the reality the national front is leaded by Soekarno itself. There are major tasks of the national Front:<br />o Accomplishing the national revolution<br />o Undertaking the national development<br />o Returning back Irian Barat<br /><br />e. The forming of cabinet<br />On July 1959, the president formed the new working cabinet, Ir. Juanda was appointed to be the vice president. Until 1964 the cabinet working has three times of reshuffle. The main programs of the cabinet are:<br />• Fulfilling the basic needs of the people<br />• Creating the national security<br />• Returning back Irian Barat<br /> <br />f. The RESOPIM teaching<br />The main purpose of RESOPIM teaching is (Revolution, Socialism of Indonesia and the national leader). It was aimed at strengthening the president position. It was widely proclaimed in the 16th celebration of proclamation independence of Indonesia.<br />The essence of this teaching is that all of the essence of national life must be gotten throughout revolution with the socialism as the soul and must be leaded by the only leader, here is Soekarno<br /><br />g. The forming of DPAS<br /><br />DPAS is formed based on the president decree No3 1959, this institution is leaded by the president itself. The members of DPAS consist of 1 vice of chief, 12 the representative of political party, 8 the representative of regional, 24 the representative of the group. The main task of DPAS is giving the answer to the government because the president is the chief. This is because DPAS which proposed unanimously that the president speech on 17 august 1959 entitled “The re – finding our revolution” which already well – known by MANIFESTO is stated as GBHN <br />5. Closing<br />Finally. The guided democracy is the manifestation of dissatisfactory of president Soekorno in the government system, it is only respond to the failure of parliamentary government system. Actually it has the good purpose to make all the Indonesian people live in welfare, but in the implementation it has gone far away from the initial destination with several abuses, it is the only tool to strengthen the president position.<br />References <br />http://rinahistory.blog.friendster.com/2008/10/indonesia-masa-demokrasi-terpimpin-1959-1966/<br />http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Indonesia_(1959-1968)<br />http://www.atimes.com/se-asia/CG31Ae04.html<br />http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_Democracy_(1957%E2%80%931965)Mahreta Adi Kuncorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09866176018145651029noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5666523219565677057.post-73869423665318000012009-10-29T00:52:00.000-07:002009-10-29T00:55:02.150-07:00The French Revolution<p class="MsoNormal" style=""><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style=""> </span>The French Revolution<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">(1789 – 1799)<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" spt="75" preferrelative="t" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" filled="f" stroked="f"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"> <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"> <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"> </v:f> <v:path extrusionok="f" gradientshapeok="t" connecttype="rect"> <o:lock ext="edit" aspectratio="t"> </o:lock><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_4" spid="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="width: 195pt; height: 145.5pt; visibility: visible;"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CMCKUNC%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image001.png" title=""> </v:imagedata></v:shape></v:path></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:formulas></v:stroke></v:shapetype></span></b><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Fall of the Bastille<a style="" href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">French Revolution is the main transformation of the society and political system of France (1789 to 1799). During the course of the Revolution, France was temporarily transformed from an absolute monarchy, where the king has the absolute power, to a republic of theoretically free and equal citizens. The effects of the French Revolution were widespread, both inside and outside of France, and the Revolution is one of the most important events in the history of Europe.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.5in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">I.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The French Revolution is happened in (1789 – 1799). It was the landmark for the France Monarch to Republican.<span style=""> </span>These changes were followed by violent disorder which included the trial and execution of the king, an enormous bloodshed and repression during the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Reign of Terror</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">, and </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">the war involving every other major European power</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">. Subsequent events that can be traced to the Revolution include the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Napoleonic Wars</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">, two separate </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration" title="Bourbon Restoration"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">restorations of the monarchy</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">, and two additional revolutions as </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">modern</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> France took shape. And In the following century, France would be governed at one point or another as a </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic" title="Republic"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">republic</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">, </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy" title="Constitutional monarchy"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">constitutional monarchy</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">, and two different </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Empire" title="French Empire"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">empires</span></a><a style="" href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[2]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The French revolution emergence can not be released from the practice of government that lasted nearly absolute in all of Europe. Absolutism initially taught by an original thinker Niccolò Machiavelli.<a style="" href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[3]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> In his book entitled "Il Principe", which means the king, Machiavelli explains that in the reign, a king should have the absolute power without limit to the country, property and people for as long as the triumph of the country.<a style="" href="#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Machiavelli thought this can not be separated from the background of his life in Italy at that time together difficult. Italy is the European country which is early formed in 1861as the united state.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">During the ten years of the Revolution, France first transformed and then dismantled the Old Regime, the political and social system that existed in France before 1789, and replaced it with a series of different governments. Although none of these governments lasted more than four years, the many initiatives they enacted permanently altered France’s political system. These initiatives included the drafting of several bills of rights and constitutions, the establishment of legal equality among all citizens, experiments with representative democracy, and the incorporation of the church into the state, and the reconstruction of state administration and the law code.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">French Revolution brought a very large influence, in a political aspect it was triggering<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>the birth of a new understand-liberalism, democracy and nationalism as the development of revolutionary motto <i style="">liberte, egalite,</i> and <i style="">franternette</i>. In the economic ones, it was abolishing the economic system of feudal, the occurrence of industrialization in Europe as a result of economic blockade by the UK initiated by Napoleon and finally they lost the market in Europe.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">II.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Research Question<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Why the French Revolution is happened and what are the influences for France as well as the world?<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">III.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Causes of the Revolution<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The foundations of absolute power have been developed in France by King Louis XIII (1610-1643) and the peak period of Louis XIV (1643-1715). He was well – known by his famous words are L'Etat c'est moi (I am the State), Detroit devin (I am ruling over) the top command of God). His Versailles Palace is known by the name of the Surya (Le Roy Soleil). The King and the elite live with the luxury and welfare while the people are suffering because they are already burdened by the various taxes.<a style="" href="#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[5]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The absolute of power is basically the major causes why the French Revolution is happened but besides that there are a lot of causes also triggered the emergence of it, and here are some causes<a style="" href="#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[6]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a>:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraph" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The Absolute Monarch Government</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The Absolute government in France was begun in the king Henry IV Navare tenure (1589-1610) continued by Louis XIII since 1610-1643 and accompanied by the Prime Minister Lous XIII Richellieu stated that "the king will not share authority with anyone as well, including the elite ones." Louis XIV is the most absolute rule for 72 years (1643-1715). In ruling, the king accompanied by the Cardinal Prime Minister Mazarin and Minister of finance named Colbert.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The characteristic of Louis XIV government:<a style="" href="#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[7]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">He has the title the king of Sun (Le Roi Soleil)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Considering him self as the representative of God (Le Droit Devine) and every people have to bow to him as same as they obey the God<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The motto of (Letat Eest Moi) “I am the state”<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Building the luxury Versailles Palace<a style="" href="#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[8]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_1" spid="_x0000_s1028" type="#_x0000_t75" style="position: absolute; left: 0pt; text-align: left; margin-left: 134.4pt; margin-top: 13.9pt; width: 169.5pt; height: 112.8pt; z-index: 2; visibility: visible;"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CMCKUNC%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image002.png" title=""> <w:wrap type="square"> </w:wrap><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></v:imagedata></v:shape></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /> <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Ruling over the state without constitution<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The absence of parliamentary watch because the abolition of House of Representative by Louis XIII<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">There is no any definite rule and law for every people and the government can arrest them according to their heart’s content<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">There is no limitation of budget and the elites can spend the national budget freely. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The Social and Economic Discontent<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">In the late 18th Century the peasant population increased dramatically. This growth in population increased the demand for more land. Land was being divided into smaller and smaller sections to cope with this problem. Eventually some sections of land were not even enough for a peasant to support his own family.<a style="" href="#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[9]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The wars in America left France in huge debt. To try and pay this debt the aristocratic social rank increased the feudal taxes for the peasants. The peasants' hardships increased greatly which further increased their resentment towards the nobility. Poor harvests in 1787 and 1788 led to a food shortage. The peasants could barely feed themselves let alone pay taxes. The peasants started to threaten violence if their situation wasn't improved.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The major economic discontents are:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Taxation</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Unlike the trading nations, France could not rely almost solely on tariffs to generate income. While average tax rates were higher in Britain, the burden on the common people was greater in France. Taxation relied on a system of internal tariffs separating the regions of France, which prevented a unified market from developing in the country. </p> <p style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The system also excluded the nobles and the clergy from having to pay taxes (with the exception of a modest quit rent). The tax burden was thus paid by the peasants, wage earners, and the professional and business classes. These groups were also cut off from most positions of power in the regime, causing unrest.</p> <p style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style="">Debt<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">By 1789, France was bankrupt. The country could no longer pay its debts, debts that were all the result of war. One example says a great deal about this situation. By 1789, France was still paying off debts incurred by the wars of Louis XIV, that is, wars of the late 17th and early 18th century. Furthermore, a number of social groups and institutions did not pay taxes of any kind. Many universities were exempt from taxation as were the thirteen <em>Parlements</em>, cites like Paris, the Church and the clergy, the aristocracy and numerous members of the bourgeoisie.<a style="" href="#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[10]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br />This led to the long-running fiscal crisis of the French government. On the eve of the revolution, France was deeply indebted, so deeply as to be effectively bankrupt. Extravagant expenditures by Louis XIV on luxuries such as Versailles were compounded by heavy expenditures on the Seven Years War and the American War of Independence.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br />Edmund Burke, no friend of the revolution, was to write in 1790, "...the public, whether represented by a monarch or by a senate, can pledge nothing but the public estate; and it can have no public estate except in what it derives from a just and proportioned imposition upon the citizens at large." Because of the successful defense by the nobles of their privileges, the king of France lacked the means to impose a "just and pro portioned" tax. The desire to do so led directly to the decision in 1788 to call the Estates-General into session.<a style="" href="#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[11]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The Emergence of Expert Opinion Thought<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">3.1<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">John Locke<a style="" href="#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[12]</span></b></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;">John Locke (1632-1704) believed that a government's primary goals should promote moral responsibility and protect individuals within that government and viewed civil society as an artificial condition that enforced the laws of man. Locke's views were aimed toward modern democracies and were meant to clarify the relationship between man and state. He believed that government should be selected by and follows the will of the majority, which was a fundamental claim of the Revolution.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Locke’s views, in his <i>Two Treatises of Government</i> (1690), attacked the theory of divine right of kings and the nature of the state as conceived by English philosopher and political theorist Thomas Hobbes. In brief, Locke argued that sovereignty did not reside in the state but with the people, and that the state is supreme, but only if it is bound by civil and what he called “natural” law. Many of Locke’s political ideas, such as those relating to natural rights, property rights, the duty of the government to protect these rights, and the rule of the majority, were later embodied in the Constitution of the United States.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;">In Two Tracts on Government, Locke argued that the state resulted from a voluntary agreement between individuals who established a sovereign power to protect them from the insecure conditions that accompanied the state of nature that existed without prior to a government and laws. However, Locke insists that there must be limits to political authority, which the French monarchy did not have. Locke contended that the aim of a supreme power is to preserve the state and improve the quality of life for individuals in that society, and the authority of the government must be limited by the will of the people. Contrary to the practice of a monarchy, Locke asserted that the majority of the people are responsible for the nomination and appointment of that government, rather than a divine succession based on bloodlines. This means that the individuals in a society may appoint new leaders if they are unhappy with their government's actions, as in the case of the French population in 1789. Locke's concept of limited sovereignty is fundamental to a democratic society; it is the basis of majority rule in which the majority of citizens elects the leaders of the sovereign nation.<a style="" href="#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[13]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a></p> <p style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="">3.2<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b>Baron de Montesquieu<a style="" href="#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[14]</span></b></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></b></p> <p style="margin-left: 4.5pt; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Montesquieu 1689-1755. His<span style="font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>famous opinion is well –known by “Trias Politika”. He was distributing the power into three separated institutions; legislative (the policy maker), the executive (the constitution implementer), and judicative (supervising the executive).<b><o:p></o:p></b></p> <p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span>Liberty is perhaps one of the most important things in a person life. In France before the revolution, many people did not have this because the government was controlled entirely by the king, who would not listen to their proposals. The French Revolution was geared towards ending this and balancing out the power among the people. A French philosopher, Charles Louis de Secondat, or Baron de Montesquieu, had he been alive at the time, would have supported this. Montesquieu?s main belief was in separation of powers in a government, because ?When the lawmaking and law-enforcing powers are united in one person,? he says, ?there can be no liberty.? Montesqueiu himself lived in France before the revolution and had seen some of the corruption there. Though he may not have agreed with some of the more radical actions taken during the revolution, he would probably agreed with it, as he did not believe in absolute monarchy and the revolution would be the only way to separate and balance out the government.<a style="" href="#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[15]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white none repeat scroll 0% 50%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">Montesquieu followed earlier thinkers in arguing that there was a necessary relationship between social divisions and these different powers. In particular, Montesquieu contended that executive power could be exercised only by a monarch and not by an elected administrator—a view wholly discarded in the Constitution of the United States. Harrington, Locke, Montesquieu, and other writers saw the concept of the separation of powers as a way to reduce or eliminate the arbitrary power of unchecked and unmanaged rulers. Separation of powers thus became associated with the closely related concept of checks and balances—the notion that government power should be controlled by overlapping authority within the government and by giving citizens the rights to criticize state action and remove officials from office.<a style="" href="#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[16]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> </p> <p style="background: white none repeat scroll 0% 50%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p style="background: white none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="">3.3<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style="">Jean-Jacques Rousseau<a style="" href="#_ftn17" name="_ftnref17" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[17]</span></b></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></b></p> <p style="background: white none repeat scroll 0% 50%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><span class="bold-text">Jean-Jacques Rousseau </span>influenced the revolution by altering the idea of the effects of civilization upon natural freedoms. Rousseau mainly effected the French perception of civilization's consequences upon liberty and "most of his works deal with the mechanisms through which humans are forced to give up liberty". His main idea can be summed up in the first line of his most renowned work, The<i> Social Contract </i>(1762): "Man is born free, but everywhere is in chains". Rousseau argued that civilization affected liberty in a negative way, as opposed to the original perception in which civilization enhanced human liberty. Rousseau's idea of a perfect government was a republic. He believed that "a people could only be free if it ruled itself". He also believed that freedom was, in effect, "ruling oneself, living under a law which one has oneself enacted" or a system approved and made by the people. <a style="" href="#_ftn18" name="_ftnref18" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[18]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">He also affected the development of the psychological literature, psychoanalytic theory, and philosophy of existentialism of the 20th century, particularly in his insistence on free will, his rejection of the doctrine of original sin, and his defense of learning through experience rather than analysis. The spirit and ideas of Rousseau’s work stand midway between the 18th-century Enlightenment, with its passionate defense of reason and individual rights, and early 19th-century romanticism, which defended intense subjective experience against rational thought.<a style="" href="#_ftn19" name="_ftnref19" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[19]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="background: white none repeat scroll 0% 50%; margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="">IV.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style="">The influence of French Revolution<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style="">The Effect of the France Revolution to the France Government<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="text" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;">The French Revolution, though it seemed a failure in 1799 and appeared nullified by 1815, had far-reaching results. In France the bourgeois and landowning classes emerged as the dominant power. Feudalism was dead; social order and contractual relations were consolidated by the <a href="http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0812765.html">Code Napoléon</a>.<a style="" href="#_ftn20" name="_ftnref20" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[20]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> The Revolution unified France and enhanced the power of the national state. The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars tore down the ancient structure of Europe, hastened the advent of nationalism, and inaugurated the era of modern, total warfare.</p> <p class="text" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;">Although some historians view the Reign of Terror as an ominous precursor of modern totalitarianism, others argue that this ignores the vital role the Revolution played in establishing the precedents of such democratic institutions as elections, representative government, and constitutions. The failed attempts of the urban lower middle classes to secure economic and political gains foreshadowed the class conflicts of the 19th cent. While major historical interpretations of the French Revolution differ greatly, nearly all agree that it had an extraordinary influence on the making of the modern world.<a style="" href="#_ftn21" name="_ftnref21" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[21]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a></p> <h1 style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; color: windowtext;"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; color: windowtext;">The Influence of the French Revolution on 19th Century Literature and Romanticism<o:p></o:p></span></h1> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The French Revolution inspired writers of the Romantic period, who supported the revolution at first because of its potential for political and social change. Effects of the revolution in later years, however, including the impact of Napoleon, led Romantic writers to write of Napoleon's cruelty, escaping to nature to get away from the real world and its problems, victims of war, and other related topics. The work of Romantic poets William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge offer good examples of this development. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The French Revolution had an important influence on the writing of the Romantic period, inspiring writers to address themes of democracy and human rights and to consider the function of revolution as a form of change. In the beginning, the French Revolution was supported by writers because of the opportunities it seemed to offer for political and social change. When those expectations were frustrated in later years, Romantic poets used the spirit of revolution to help characterize their poetic philosophies.<a style="" href="#_ftn22" name="_ftnref22" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[22]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="">V.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style="">The Critical Review<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>In my opinion besides the absolutism which is taught by Machiavelli, there is the influential factor that triggers the king to implement the absolute monarch government. The leadership concept of church is the determinant aspect of it. The absolute power of the pope towards its followers was stimulating the kings at that time to get the equal power as same as the pope. In Greek, the Caesar position is playing double role, He is the Head of the church and also the leader of the country. And the obedience of the people to God must be shown by the obedience to the Caesar as the representative of God.<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span style=""> </span></span><span style="line-height: 150%;">Finally, the kings has the absolute power as same as the pope in one country. And it’s inexorable they indirectly create the despotized government or tyranny. It was bringing about to several negative impacts such as ruling over the country without constitution, ruling over without parliament supervision, ruling without definite law and also ruling without the determined national budget. The main thing there is no any limits for the king to do everything and determine every policy. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>The French revolution brought about the positive effects to the people and the government it self. The election of representative government has been implemented. The codification of Law, Slavery was also abolished, and the people live in the equal right and law. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;">The French revolution also was resulted to the positive effects in the global world such as the influence of the French Revolution on 19<sup>th</sup> century literature and romanticism, and the inspiration for another country to have the revolution and to get rid of the absolute monarch government<b><span style="">. </span></b><span style="">The main significant effect from it is the liberal thought taught about the freedom, the equality of law and the equality of right among people. And this Liberian thought has been widely spreading all over countries and as the main step of the Democracy system.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="">VI.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="">Conclusion</span></b><b style=""><o:p></o:p></b></p> <p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">Finally, we have to pay close attention that basically every people have the right, the freedom that must be appreciated and protected by the government. And the French revolution is the crucial lesson that the absolute power of King which limit the freedom of their people and strictly impose his will to the people only resulting to the riots and rebellions. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><v:rect id="_x0000_s1027" style="position: absolute; left: 0pt; text-align: left; margin-left: 212.55pt; margin-top: -39.45pt; width: 26.3pt; height: 24.9pt; z-index: 3;" strokecolor="white [3212]"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></v:rect></p> <br /> <p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><v:rect id="_x0000_s1026" style="position: absolute; left: 0pt; text-align: left; margin-left: 222.9pt; margin-top: -39.45pt; width: 27pt; height: 24.2pt; z-index: 1;" strokecolor="white [3212]"><b><span style="">References:<o:p></o:p></span></b></v:rect></p> <p style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->Lieberman, Jethro K. "Separation of Powers." Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008</p> <p style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">"</span>Jean Jacques Rousseau." Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008<span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution</a></p> <p style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><a href="http://www.e-dukasi.net/mol/mo_full.php?moid=104&fname=sej201_08.htm">http://www.e-dukasi.net/mol/mo_full.php?moid=104&fname=sej201_08.htm</a></p> <p style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><a href="http://ilmupedia.com/akademik/sejarah/umum/594-revolusi-perancis.html">http://ilmupedia.com/akademik/sejarah/umum/594-revolusi-perancis.html</a></p> <p style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><a href="http://www.geocities.com/thefrenchrevolution/causes.html">http://www.geocities.com/thefrenchrevolution/causes.html</a></p> <p style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><a href="http://bonjourlafrance.net/france-facts/france-history/causes-of-the-french-revolution.htm">http://bonjourlafrance.net/france-facts/france-history/causes-of-the-french-revolution.htm</a></p> <p style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><a href="http://www.papermasters.com/john-locke-french-revolution.html">http://www.papermasters.com/john-locke-french-revolution.html</a></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><a href="http://www.radessays.com/viewpaper/12604/Baron_de_Montesquieu_and_the_French_Revolution.html"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">http://www.radessays.com/viewpaper/12604/Baron_de_Montesquieu_and_the_French_Revolution.html</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">10.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><a href="http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/1685317/rousseau_voltaire_montesquieu_their.html?cat=47"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/1685317/rousseau_voltaire_montesquieu_their.html?cat=47</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">11.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><a href="http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0858289.html"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0858289.html</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">12.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">http://www.bookrags.com/essay-2005/10/22/15447/304<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b><span style=""><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><b style=""><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <div style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><br /> <hr align="left" size="1" width="33%"> <!--[endif]--> <div style="" id="ftn1"> <p class="MsoNormal"><a style="" href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">On July 14, 1789 an angry mob, tired of the oppressive brutality of the French monarchy, captured the Bastille, the royal prison in Paris</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn2"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a style="" href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[2]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution<o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn3"> <p class="MsoNormal"><a style="" href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[3]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527), Italian historian, statesman, and political philosopher, whose amoral, but influential writings on statecraft have turned his name into a synonym for cunning and duplicity. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn4"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a style="" href="#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> http://www.e-dukasi.net/mol/mo_full.php?moid=104&fname=sej201_08.htm<o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn5"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a style="" href="#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[5]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> http://ilmupedia.com/akademik/sejarah/umum/594-revolusi-perancis.html</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn6"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a style="" href="#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[6]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> http://www.e-dukasi.net/mol/mo_full.php?moid=104&fname=sej201_08.htm</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn7"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a style="" href="#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[7]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn8"> <p class="MsoNormal"><a style="" href="#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[8]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">In 1678 King Louis XIV of France entrusted French architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart with a major expansion of the Palace of Versailles. One of Hardouin-Mansart's most noted additions was the Hall of Mirrors, added to the palace in 1684. </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">("Palace of Versailles." Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-size: 8pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn9"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a style="" href="#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[9]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style=""> </span>http://www.geocities.com/thefrenchrevolution/causes.html</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn10"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a style="" href="#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[10]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ibid.</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn11"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a style="" href="#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[11]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style=""> </span>Ibid.</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn12"> <p><a style="" href="#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[12]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style=""> </span><span class="inlinetitle"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">John Locke</span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (1632-1704), English philosopher, who founded the school of empiricism. Locke was born in the village of Wrington, Somerset, on August 29, 1632. He was educated at the University of Oxford and lectured on Greek, rhetoric, and moral philosophy at Oxford from 1661 to 1664.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><o:p> </o:p></p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn13"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a style="" href="#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[13]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style=""> </span>http://www.papermasters.com/john-locke-french-revolution.html</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn14"> <p class="MsoNormal"><a style="" href="#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[14]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755), French writer and jurist. Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de la Brède et de Montesquieu, was born in the Château of la Brède and educated at the Oratorian school at Juilly and later at Bordeaux. He became counselor of the Bordeaux parliament in 1714 and was its president from 1716 to 1728.<o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn15"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a style="" href="#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[15]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> http://www.radessays.com/viewpaper/12604/Baron_de_Montesquieu_and_the_French_Revolution.html</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn16"> <p class="MsoNormal"><a style="" href="#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[16]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Lieberman, Jethro K. "Separation of Powers." Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008. </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn17"> <p class="MsoNormal"><a style="" href="#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[17]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <span class="inlinetitle"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">Jean Jacques Rousseau</span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;"> (1712-1778), French philosopher, social and political theorist, musician, a composer, music theorist and novelist, as well as a political thinker of the Enlightenment.<o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn18"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a style="" href="#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[18]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/1685317/rousseau_voltaire_montesquieu_their.html?cat=47</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn19"> <p class="MsoNormal"><a style="" href="#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[19]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">"</span><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Jean Jacques Rousseau." Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn20"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a style="" href="#_ftnref20" name="_ftn20" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[20]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style=""> </span>French legal code; the codification of French laws drawn up under Napoleon between 1804 and 1810 and forming the basis of modern French civil Law</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn21"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a style="" href="#_ftnref21" name="_ftn21" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[21]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0858289.html</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn22"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><a style="" href="#_ftnref22" name="_ftn22" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";">[22]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style=""> </span>http://www.bookrags.com/essay-2005/10/22/15447/304</p> </div> </div>Mahreta Adi Kuncorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09866176018145651029noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5666523219565677057.post-67320575195307074002009-10-29T00:50:00.000-07:002009-10-29T00:51:57.358-07:00The Communism and the Emergence of Communist Party in IndonesiaThe Communism and the Emergence of Communist Party in Indonesia<br /><br /><br /><br />Introduction<br /> This paper will briefly explain the history, the principles and the main actors of communism and its role in stimulating the emergence of communist party in Indonesia (PKI). Communism is a theory and system of social and political organization that was a major force in world politics for much of the 20th century . Communism is born as the strict reaction towards the capitalism in 19th century, which they truly prioritize to the individual interest and really ignoring the labor interest.<br /> Today communism plays two quite separate roles. In a number of countries it sustains a political system, which is the official, or, as we called it, the status quo ideology. This is the clearly the case in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and some of Balkan countries. In Asia, such countries as Republican China, North Korea, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia have communist regimes. Today at least 30 percent of all peoples of the world live under the communist regimes and the communist ideology.<br /> In Communism the social change must be started from the communist party. The logic is that every social exchange must be started from proletariat, but the succession of labors only can be realized by the existence the good governance party which can accommodate the interest of labors. This ideology truly limits the liberty and the religion to its followers.<br /><br />The History of Communism<br />Communist idea has already existed since the ancient times. Greek philosopher Plato maintained that minimizing social inequality would promote civil peace and good government. In Plato’s ideal republic, an elite class of intellectuals, are deserved to be a leader and to govern the state to be welfare state.<br />In the 16th century English writer Thomas More, in his treatise Utopia (1516) , depicted a society based on common ownership of property, whose rulers administered it through the application of pure reason. But this idea got a lot of critics because of misgoverned of European states moreover in 17th-century England a Puritan religious group known as the Diggers advocated the abolition of private ownership of land.<br />Criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Immanuel Kant in Germany and Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Philosophers of the Enlightenment maintained that it is the natural condition of human beings to share equally in political authority and the rewards of labor. The French Revolution (1789-1799), the upheaval of the Revolution brought stimulated a flurry of communistic ideas. François Noël Babeuf, a revolutionary prominent people, adopted and promoted the goals of common ownership of land and total economic and political equality among citizens .<br />The theory of communism was developed systematically by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the 1840s, who asserted that human society underwent development through a series of historical stages or modes of production, and that out of the development of capitalism and the organized activity of the working class would emerge a communist society or workers' state as the culmination of history. Marx gave only the most general indication as to what constituted a communist society, and later writers modified his vision by giving a central place to the state in the organizing of such societies, and by arguing for a prolonged transition period of socialism prior to the attainment of full communism.<br />Almost a century and a half ago, in 1848, Marx wrote The Communist Manifesto; it transformed communism from only a theory into a strong political movement. In his opening sentence he spoke of “a specter” that haunted Europe – “the specter of communism.” Today it is a reality. Communism in the form of established political regimes or as a powerful political revolutionary movement, inspires, mobilizes, and organizes for political action a greater number of people than any other political ideology.<br />The Communist Founding Father<br /> The communist ideology was founded by Karl Marx (1818 – 1883). He was born in Germany, where he studied law, philosophy, and history, Karl Marx and his family settled in London when he was thirty years old. There he began a lifelong cooperation with Engels to develop a communist ideology and to translate it into political action. In 1848 they produced The Communist Manifesto, urging the workers to rise and to take over the means production from the exploiting capitalist class. In 1864 he founded the first International aiming at uniting the workers everywhere in a revolutionary struggle. Marx like Freud half a century late suggested a new way of looking at social life and history. Accordingly, material, economic conditions are responsible for the shaping of our values, morality, attitudes, and political institution.<br /> Four sources combined to produce the overall synthesis that constitutes Marxism. They are:<br />1. Hegel’s philosophy, especially his philosophy of history<br />2. The works of the British economists; notably, Ricardo, Adam Smith, Malthus and others<br />3. The French utopian socialists, even though they were criticized sharply by Marx and Engels<br />4. The social and economic reality of the mid-nineteenth century, particularly in England.<br />According to Marx, ‘All history is the clash of classes.” It also represents the emergence and the collapse of economic system. He argued that the model of historical development is throughout steps or production method: Asiatic, ancient, feudal, bourgeois (capitalist), and finally communist. Marx is the historical determinist explaining the inexorable process which free from want, awareness and human intelligence.<br />The communist terminology consists of two meanings. First, the commune state with his own government and federation. Second is the collective ownership. The collective ownership terminology was used by Cabet to promote the communist ideology and it was well accepted in British in 1840.<br />Marx and Engels purposely wrote The Communist Manifesto to emphasize the collective ownership and mutual interest. It was also functioning as the guidelines for its follower’s in implementing the communist ideology.<br />The True Believers<br /> The true believers of communist ideology are the proletariat people particularly labor as the main object of it. sThe basic of this ideology is abolishing the private ownership and it supposed belong to all people. <br />The Communist Principals<br /> First, the communist ideology particularly Marx has the great influence in attracting the people and gives them a promised hope. The age where a lot of social disorder are happened and they feel suffered of malaise. And Marx philosophy was the social salvation for the people.<br /> Second, the communists believe to the historical materialistic, because they believe that spiritual factor is the result of materialistic development including economy. Therefore, they do not really concern to the spiritual development aspects. They distrust of God. Religion is strictly prohibited because considered as the opium of the people. Qur’anic Interpretation was truly condemn and regarded as the criminal action and will be punished about 6 years in jail. According to Marx, the religion appears because of class distinction. A religion is a trap for the proletariat people built by the elite ones.<br /> The communist ideology also denying others reason and distrust it, they also deny the human equality values and the economic interpretation of history. Therefore they will do everything ward off their enemy even if from their own party.<br /> Third, the behavior code of communist ideology is based on violence. They do not acknowledge the declaration of human rights. Marxism also do not believe to the family relationship supporting the bourgeois hegemony and they must replace it by the sexual discourse. <br /> Fourth, the main aim of communist ideology is diminishing the state, and building society with full of freedom with no social class and all are equal, the communist ideology has the international characteristic in a politic, social, economy, and culture.<br /> Fifth, every policy control is under the certain people called by Polit Biro and automatically it will create the central economic system with dictatorial management and government by the view.<br /> Sixth, the abolition of the private ownership is the main factor in communism because there is no private ownership but the general ownership. It can be attained by several measures;<br />a. The abolition of private industry from the progressive tariff.<br />b. The abolition of the land owner, the capitalist through the binding of compensation.<br />c. The effectiveness of labor management and the proletariat in several factories.<br />d. the centralization of the credit fund in the national bank by using the kingdom capital at the first place<br />e. The education program for the child when their mothers work which fully funded by the nation<br />The Historical Background of communist party emergence in Indonesia<br />Communism ideology was stimulating working class and poor people (world) to unite against capitalism-liberalism. Thus, the communist ideology was the international ones. Therefore, international communism, called (Komintern).<br />Ideology and the teachings of communism began to develop in Europe (in German) by Karl Marx. The main ideology is collecting all the labor of the world, and the poor (proletarian, tacky) that considered oppressed by the capital (capitalists, the rich). Ideology make the life of this working class and poor people are more prosperous; retake the rights of those who seized and occupied by the capitalist (capitalism, liberalism) that traverse the nations. <br /> Some of the young students of Indonesian students studying in Europe is stuck with the communist ideology. When they return to Indonesia, the students are also being a cadre of communism. They began sneak in various organizations struggle against Dutch colonialism. They are the pioneer of Indonesian communists. When they feel strong enough then they express their self as the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) in 1926.<br /> In the Netherlands a labor leader named HJFMSneevliet establish the Labor Party-Social Democrats (Sociaal Democratische Arbeiderspartij (SDAP) as the communist movement in the Netherlands. This movement is growing to become Indische Sociaal-Democratische Vereniging (ISDV), and a pioneer communist party. The cadre of ISDV sneaked to be a member of Sarekat Islam (SI), then finally they established the Red SI-1924; as embryo of PKI in 1926.<br /> In the process of that, figures began to struggle as a communist follower marxisme-sAtheism-communism; such as: Semaun, Darsono, Alimin, MUSO, dal others. They, as a tribe of Java of Indonesia (Moslem abangan) obsessed and enamored with the ideology of socialism-communism began to show its struggle through October revolution in Russia in 1917.<br />The basic principles of Communist party organization<br /> The labor class has the variety of opposing organization. There are several labors who involved in the battles with the capitalist class. There are several cooperative organizations from the labor to help and to alleviate the burden of their members. There are several collective organizations of education, the youth organization. The main goal of these organizations is to increase the awareness of the labors.<br /> But the high awareness and the political skill from those labors organization is not fully enough to oppose the capitalist hegemony and to make their position even stronger and join force to overthrow the capitalistic system. Therefore there must be the organized political party from the proletariat class, means that the theory of struggling must be injected to the labor movement. Marxism-Leninism is the appropriate theory to do that because it is the revolutionary party. The communist party is the labor’s party. Therefore the communist party is the organized vanguard of communism. But in order to be the vanguard, the capable and reliable organization the labor party has to have the basic organizations as follows ;<br />a. Centralist – Democratic principle<br />The party must have the political integrity and the organization union. The political integrity as well as organization are the major requirement of the communist party. To get and attain the political integrity the centralist – democratic is needed and the communist party is formed by those principals. Centralist democratic principal is the main principal of communist party which has the function to manage the authority distribution to every the head of party and also as the highest democratic implementation in the party. It means that the centralism in the party is built on the democratic principal. The implemented democracy is the centralized headquarter of leadership in the party.<br />The main requirements to implement the centralist – democratic principal in the organization are:<br />a. All of the leaders of party from the bottom to up hierarchy are elected by the members democratically.<br />b. All of he the party leadership board has to give the reports in a certain time to the party organization which elect them.<br />c. Every single party has to bow to the party organization. The small party has to bow to the biggest ones<br />d. The discipline of party must be undertaken as effective as possible and the party decree must be totally implemented<br />The centralist model guarantees the centralist leadership. by using that model, the integrity of party will be solid. This system will result to the massive trust of society and it is the credit point and the main requirement for this party to gain the victories in every actions.<br /><br /> The democratic model will support the members of party to actively participate in solving any problems in everyday of life. The democratic model will develop the initiative measures of the party.<br /> The centralist democracy in the party is one of the integrity of two sides which really inherently correlated. The centralism without democracy values only resulted to the authority or ultra – democracy or unguided democracy. This democracy is sometimes well – known by the liberal democracy.<br />b. The discipline<br />The communist party has to accumulate all powers and the organization of proletariat class. The discipline is the main point of organization. Party has the agreed democracy for all the members of party from the members to be until the highest functionaries’. Only by this strong discipline integrity the party can be survive and able to maintain the relation with its members.<br />c. Critics and self-criticism<br />The party constitution stated that “the communist party has continuously introspected every mistakes and shortcomings by using the critical thought and self-critic. By knowing the self shortcoming the party can educate the party cadres. The communist party has to oppose the arrogant attitude.<br />In order to solve the mistakes and shortcoming of internal party we have to introspect the party it self. By using critical thoughts and self – critic in every works we can repair the false and the shortcomings of party. The party will integrity will be well developed.<br />In order to undertake the appropriate critical thought and view we have to remember several factors: the mistakes and the shortcomings must be regarded as the disease that can be healed. For the persons who want to criticize he must act like a doctor who want to heal the sick and for the criticized persons they have to act like the sick which always accept the constructive suggestion from the doctor as long as good for them. Therefore the critic and self – critic is needed in order to diminish the negative impacts in the internal party organization.<br />The critical thought and self – critics can be articulated by several mediator such as the periodic meeting and discussion. They play an effective role in developing the critics and self – critics.<br />d. The collective leadership<br />The party leadership is truly determined by good leadership and especially the collective leadership. The collective leadership method can be implemented by accumulating the aspirations from the mass. And the collective assumption can be the guideline for the collective leadership. The collective leadership is really different with the personal leadership. The personal leadership sometimes betray the aspiration of the mass and only prioritizing the personal interest. Therefore the personal leadership is truly subjective.<br />The collective leadership mechanism doesn’t disregard the personal responsibility. If the party doesn’t have personal responsibility it will be trapped in the bad management. In every organization there must be the distribution of the jobs, and every person has to be responsible in their jobs. Every collective board elects the reliable member who has the significant progress and good achievement. The party organization will be more consolidated and more has an influential effect to the mass if every communist works based on the collective leadership.<br />PKI rebellion on November 1926<br /> In November 1926 PKI led the rebellion against the colonial government in West Java and West Sumatra. PKI announced of a republic. This rebellion was destroyed by the brutal colonial regime. Thousands of people were killed and about 13,000 people arrested. Some 1308 people, usually the party cadres, sent to the Boven Digul, a detention camp in Papua [2]. Some people died in custody. Many political activists of non-communist government also targets to be colonial, with the reason of oppressing the communist rebellion. PKI was prohibited by the Netherlands government in 1927.<br /><br /><br />Madiun Affairs on December 1948<br />Current Madiun (or Madiun Affairs) is a violent conflict that occurred in East Java in September - December 1948. This begins with the proclamation of Soviet state Republic of Indonesia on 18 September 1948 by MUSO in Madiun, a prominent Communist Party of India also supported by the Ministry of Defense at that time, Amir Sjarifuddin. <br /> At the beginning of the Madiun conflict, the Dutch government pretends to offer help to quell the rebellion, but the bid is clearly rejected by the government of the Republic of Indonesia. Indonesian military leaders even take into account; the Netherlands will soon take advantage of the situation to initiate attacks against the total armed forces of the Republic of Indonesia. Indeed, the left groups including Amir Syarifuddin Harahap, the strength to build the Indonesian Government, which has accused the U.S. tend to be aligned.<br /> In May 1948 together with Suripno, Vice Indonesia in Prague, Musso, back from Moscow, Russia. Musso arrived in Yogyakarta on 11th August and immediately re-occupy the leadership position in the Communist Party of Indonesia. Many socialist politicians and army commanders to join Musso, Mr. Amir Sjarifuddin Harahap, dr. Setiajid, Patuk discussion groups, etc. And finally, the kidnapping and killing each other start happening, and they start blaming each other as simulator in triggering the conflict.<br /> Strength of the Musso forces was attacked and quelled from two directions: from the west by Division II troops under the command of Colonel Gatot Subroto, who was appointed to be Governor of Military Region II (Semarang-Surakarta) dated 15 September 1948, and troops from the Division Siliwangi, while from the east attacked by troops from Division I, under the command of Colonel Sungkono, who appointed Military Governor of East Java, on 19 September 1948, and the Brigade of troops Mobiele (MBB) of East Java, under the command of M. Yasin.<br /> The general commander of Sudirman conveyed to the government, that the TNI troops can quell army-supporting Musso within 2 weeks. It is true, the strength of the core troop-supporting Musso can be destroyed in a short time<br /> At the end of November 1948 all the leaders and troops supporting Musso killed or arrested. Eleven leaders of the group left, including Mr. Amir Syarifuddin Harahap, former Prime Minister of the Republic of Indonesia, executed on 20 December 1948, on the Kol. Gatot Subroto.<br />The Future of Communism<br /> In the classic writings of Marx and Engels, capitalism was a dark presence and communism a thinly sketched picture of a shining future. The intellectual forefathers of the communist regimes of the 20th century supposed to study and criticize capitalism by means of exact science; communism they approached through a form of prediction.<br /> In my opinion, the future of communism will be fully determined by the state political condition where it will be implemented. The communism ideology may get a shining future in the socialist, authoritarian or totalitarian countries where the elite politics are playing a big role in determining every policies making of the government. and also those countries have the closed system government characteristic and long future oriented.<br /> In the other hand, the communism will be not growing well in the countries which implementing the democratic systems, because those countries truly appreciate the freedom of speech, and guaranteeing the right of every citizen including embracing a certain religion which strictly prohibited by communism and regarded as the opium of the people. Democratic countries have the open government system where every decision will be determined by the majority interest through the legislative people.<br />The Critiques on Communism<br /> Karl Marx idea on communism resulted to several critics and supports. But here are the own critics of mine on this ideology:<br />1. Karl Marx fully believe on the dialectic theory of historic materialism which glorifying the materialism as the basic of life. And the true human is not measured by the only materialism but also the spiritual aspect of them.<br />2. Communism disregards the existence of religion while religion is the most important in guiding the people to be the good ones which have good moral and high integrity.<br />3. Communism disregards the liberty and the right of their people<br />4. Communism allows every measures to achieve their goal including implementing the violence and killing the enemies<br />Closing<br /> The emergence of communist party in Indonesia actually is really inspired by the Russian revolution on October in 1916. They did believe that the Dutch colonialization can be overthrown by the good governance of the political party it self. The history of communism was leaving the bloody story because of the strict doctrine and the ideology. The basic of ideology of communism is the labor ideology which firstly emerged because they want to get their independence from the capitalist class. The communist has no the private ownership. The existence of communist party was formally banned in 1960 leaded by the president Soeharto.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />References<br />1. Syam, Firdaus. Dr. 2007. Pemikiran Politik Barat, sejarah filsafat, ideology dan pengaruhnya terhadap dunia ke-3, first edition. Jakarta: Bumi Aksara Press.<br />2. C. Macridis. Roy. 1983. Contemporary Political Ideologies, second edition. Boston Toronto: Little, Brown and Company<br />3. Noer, Delia. 1982. Pemikiran Politik di Negeri Barat. Jakarta: C.V rajawali Press<br />4. Budi Hardiman, Fransisco. Dr. 2003. Ideologi – ideologi Politik Kontemporer, Roger Eatwell dan AnthonyWright, Jakarta: Mediator<br />5. More, Sir Thomas. Utopia. Translated and edited by Adams, Robert M. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1992.<br />6. Colton, Timothy J. "Communism." Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.s<br />7. http://lab.pancasila.um.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2008/11/memahami-komunis1.doc<br />8. http://marxists.architexturez.net/indonesia/indones/1958-ApaPKI.htm<br />9. http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partai-Komunis-Indonesia<br />10. http://iisg.nl/archieves/pdf/10766036.pdf<br />11. http://macsman.wordpress.com/2008/10/24/peristiwa-pki-madiun-1948Mahreta Adi Kuncorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09866176018145651029noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5666523219565677057.post-34728902163977096102009-10-29T00:47:00.002-07:002009-10-29T00:50:13.031-07:00Hermeneutic is the product of the worldview<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;" align="center"><b>Hermeneutic is the product of the worldview<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><b><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><b>Introduction<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="">Hermeneutic is the interpretation science coming from the Greek mythology. It was adopted by the Christians to deal with the problematic interpretation of bible. This science developed as the philosophy ideology in the West intellectual traditions. Therefore it was born with the worldview of Greek, Christian and the West. This paper will prove that the hermeneutic is the science and the product coming from their worldview and civilization<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h1 style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></h1> <h1 style="line-height: 150%;">Why the worldview?</h1> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;">Why we have to see the hermeneutic in the context of the worldview? Because every science, concept, theory are the products of society or nation with their own civilization and worldview. The worldview is how the society views the nature and the universal of live. A belief to God is the crucial aspect in the human worldview because of its conceptual implications. A society or nation who absolutely believes to God will have a different worldview with those who do not. In the book of Thinking Critically about Philosophical Problem, Thomas F Wall, said that God is: </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">The most important element in any worldview …… if we are consistent, we will also believe that the source of moral values is not just human convention but divine will and that God is the highest value. Moreover, we will have to believe that knowledge can be of more than what is observable and there is a higher reality – the supernatural world.<sup>1 </sup><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">For those unbelievers of God the moral value of them is the human convention, which based on the standard of custom, norms and it just merely the advisability. The reality is only the empirical facts which can be perceived by the logic. The Islamic worldview is not just merely the view about the nature and the real life but the whole reality of <i style="">wujud </i>which was defined by al – Attas as <i style="">ru’yatul Islam li al-wujud </i>because it was the absolute thing in Islam. The universe in only the part of <i style="">wujud, </i>therefore the God concept is central in the Islamic worldview and has its conceptual consequence. </p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-top: 6pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">How the worldview of civilization arises the science, it was clearly defined by Alparslan in the book of Islamic Science towards a Definition. It was clearly defined in his book that science arises within certain worldview only. In his theory, Alparslan said that there are three major aspects of science arising: <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin: 6pt 0in 0.0001pt 53.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -15.9pt; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1) The existence of scientist community with the worldview which is colorized by the conceptual environment. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin: 6pt 0in 0.0001pt 53.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -15.9pt; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">2) The network between a scientific concept with another ones and forming the scientific conceptual scheme.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin: 6pt 0in 0.0001pt 53.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -15.9pt; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin: 6pt 0in 0.0001pt 53.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -15.9pt; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">3) The interrelated concept is bringing about the outlook and the technical vocabulary.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.1pt; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Even though there is a birth process which more detail but the process above is quite enough to examine how the hermeneutic as the science arising from the worldview. Therefore we had better to see how the milieu of society where the hermeneutic is developing. Werner said that there are three crucial milieus affecting the arising of hermeneutic as the science or the theory of interpretation: <b><i><o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 74.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.65in; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><b><span style="">First<span style=""> </span>: </span></b><span style="">The milieu of society which truly influenced by the Greek philosophical thoughts</span>. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 74.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.65in; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><b><span style="">Second<i><span style=""> </span></i>:<i> </i></span></b><span style="">The </span>milieu of Jews and Christians in deal with the problematic issue of the bible and attempting to look for the appropriate model for it.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 74.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.65in; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><b><span style="">Third<span style=""> </span>: </span></b><span style="">The</span><i> </i>milieu of European in the enlightenment age which get their endeavor to get rid of the tradition and religious authority and attempting to bring the hermeneutic out of religious context.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 28.1pt; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">These three important milieus are not the only integrated community but the great deal of communities which periodically following the hermeneutic development. Therefore by using the milieus data which focusing on hermeneutic development, we can figure out the worldview influences to the hermeneutic development in the three phases: <i style="">first </i>from the Greek Mythology to the Jews theology, <i style="">second </i>from the problematic Christian theology to the rationalization and philosophical thought, <i style="">third </i>from the philosophical thoughts to the hermeneutic philosophy. From these three phases we can see the exchange of the society worldview.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><b><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><b>From the Greek mythology to Christian Theology<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><b><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">It’s already well – known that there is no a definite religion for the Greek, but they believe to God in the context of mythology. There are a lot of idols in the Greece with Zeus and Maia as the head of them. They have a son named by Hermes; he was widely acclaimed as the messenger of idols describing the message from the idols in the heaven. From the name of Hermes itself the hermeneutic was derived and used by the Greece. This concept is formally used for the cultural needs to determine the meaning, role and functions of literally text coming from the ancient Greece, especially the epics of Homer. <span style=""> </span>But actually there is a belief that the human words are the divine inspiration. This belief is a reflection of the worldview. There are a number of Gods is the Greek mythology. Aristotle for example, calls the god as the unmoved mover, it is one absolutely but there are 55 practically.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Even though the hermeneutic interpretation had been practiced by the Greece in term of their tradition, but the hermeneutic terminology is firstly founded in Plato’s book (429-347 BC) <i style="">Politikos, Epinomis, Definitione, </i>and <i style="">Timeus. </i>In <i style="">definitione </i>Plato clearly stated that hermeneutic is “defining a thing” which is not only restricted in the statement, but encompassing the language generally, translation, interpretation, the language style and rhetoric. Meanwhile, in the <i style="">Timaeus, </i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Plato correlates the hermeneutic with the top holder of truth authority which the truth only can be well understood by the “prophet”. Prophet here is defined as the mediator between god and human. This mediatory function interrelate etymologically the <i style="">hemeneus </i>semantic tribe and the Hermes God.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">In dealing with the problematic issues of authority crises among the interpreters in understanding the mythology or divine, the Greece used to cope with the problems with <i style="">rational logos </i>concept. Stoicism (300 SM) then developed the hermeneutic as the science of allegory interpretation, a method to understand the text by looking for the deep meaning of it rather than the literal understanding. Therefore, Stoic implemented the doctrine of inner logos and outer logos as the allegory interpretation towards the mythology. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">The allegory method is further developed by Philo of Alexandria (20 SM – 50 M), a Jew which was widely acclaimed by the father of allegory method. This method is sometimes called by the typology. It was describing that the spiritual meaning understanding of text isn’t coming from the text itself or the text information but from the symbolic understanding referring to the out context of the text. This allegory hermeneutic is transmitted into the theological thoughts of Christian. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Nevertheless, the allegory method which developed in Alexandria is strictly challenged by the group which really supports the literal method in Antioch. The dispute of both represented the clash of symbolic interpretation method as well as literal. The Alexandria is under the influence of Plato’s thought, while the Antioch is under the influence of Aristotle’s idea. The hermeneutic concept of Aristotle is early exists before Stoic. But the Christians consider Aristotle’s ideas highlight the logic and semantic which really endanger the Christian thought.<span style=""> </span>Something worth to be kept in our mind that the Christians have coped with several probelematic issues before adopting the Greek interpretation method. It can be proven by the emergence of Gnosticsm and Marcionism in their early time. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style=""> </span>The hermeneutic in the Christian theology was well developed in the middle age carried by Thomas Aquinas (1225 -1274). The emergence which is preceded by the transmission of Aristotle’s ideas into the milieu of Islamic thought indicate the strong influence of Aristotle’s thought and Islamic thinkers such as al-Farabi (870 – 950), Ibnu Sina, and Ibnu Rushd (1126 – 1198) indicate<span style=""> </span>bring</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Perkembangan pemikiran hermeneutika yang patut dicatat dalam teologi Kristen terjadi pada abad pertengahan yang dibawa oleh Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). Kemunculannya yang didahului oleh transmisi karya-karya Aristotle kedalam milieu pemikiran Islam mengindikasikan kuatnya pengaruh pemikiran Aristotle dan Aristotelian Muslim khususnya al-Farabi (870-950),<span style=""> </span>Ibn Sina (980-1037) dan Ibn Rushd (1126-1198). Dalam karyanya <i>Summa Theologia </i>ia menunjukkan kecenderungan filsafat naturalistic Aristotle yang juga bertentangan dengan kecenderungan Neo-Platonis St.Augustine. Ia mengatakan bahwa “pengarang kitab suci adalah Tuhan” dan sesuatu yang perlu dilakukan oleh para teolog adalah pemahaman literal.<a style="" href="#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Pemahaman literal lebih banyak merujuk kepada hermeneutika Aristotle dalam <i>Peri Hermenias</i> nya. Tujuannya adalah untuk menyusun teologi Kristen agar memenuhi standar formulasi ilmiah dan sekaligus merupakan penolakannya terhadap interpretasi alegoris. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Gabungan filsafat Aristotle dan doktrin-doktrin Kristiani<span style=""> </span>merupakan sumbangan Thomas yang berharga bagi pemikiran filsafat gereja Katholik. Namun, negatifnya ia diklaim sebagai representasi kitab yang sakral (<i>sacra scriptura</i>) dan bahkan ajaran yang sakral (<i>sacra doctrina</i>). Padahal teks-teks Bible itu dieksploitir untuk menjustifikasi premis-premis teologi mereka yang telah banyak dipengaruhi pemikiran spekulatif filsafat. Itulah sebabnya Werner menganggap hermeneutika dalam pengertian Thomas itu sebagai <i>the emerging humanist interpretation theory.</i> Hal ini tidak lepas dari milieu pendidikan humanisme<a style="" href="#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[2]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> yang mulai berkembang di tengah masyarakat Barat dan yang diterima oleh para pendeta waktu itu.<a style="" href="#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[3]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Pemikiran para teolog Kristen yang diwarnai teori interpretasi humanistis itu, sebenarnya bertentangan dengan realitas spiritual yang dianut gereja. Sebab ketika Thomas Aquinas muncul milieu pemikiran teologi dan filosof Barat tidak lagi menjadikan masalah Tuhan sebagai sentral pembahasan mereka.<a style="" href="#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Jikapun ada pembahasan masalah Tuhan maka ia dibahas dengan pendekatan yang seperti itu. Yang jelas tren interpretasi humanistis ini berlaku hingga akhir abad ke <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">lima</st1:City></st1:place> belas dan awal abad ke enam belas. Pengaruhnya ini terhadap gerakan reformasi dalam intepretasi Bible cukup kuat. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Prinsip hermeneutika yang diyakini Protestan, khususnya Luther adalah bahwa pemahaman yang benar terhadap kata-kata dalam teks itu sendirilah sebenarnya yang membuat jiwa Kitab itu tumbuh dan bukan diluar dari teks Kitab. Dictumnya <i>sui ipsius interperes</i> (<i>self interpreting</i>) berarti bahwa kehadiran Tuhan dalam setiap kata tergantung kepada pengamalan yang dimanifestasikan melalui pemahaman yang disertai keimanan. Motto kaum Protestan ini dikenal dengan <i>Sola Scriptura, </i>yaitu meyakini bahwa Bible saja telah merupakan petunjuk yang cukup jelas untuk memahami Tuhan. Sikap kaum Protestan terhadap gereja, dan dictum <i>sui ipsius interperes</i> mereka dianggap naïve dan tidak memuaskan. Selain tidak dapat mengatasi kesulitasn bacaan suatu paragap juga tidak dapat mengelak terjadinya interpretasi yang arbitrer. Demikian pula sikap mereka yang tidak menganggapnya sebagai sumber keimanan Kristen yang dapat digali untuk membangun sistim kepercayaan mengundang reaksi.<span style=""> </span>Para teolog Katholik Roma melalui Konsili <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Trent</st1:City></st1:place> (1545) menolak prinsip Protestan itu dan mendukung teori dua sumber keimanan dan teologi Kristen yakni: Bible dan tradisi Kristen. Itulah kondisi teologis yang mengitari konsep hermeneutika.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Selain persoalan teologis akar masalahnya juga dapat dilacak dari problematika teks Bible sendiri.<a style="" href="#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[5]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Diseputar teks Bible terdapat masalah-masalah mendasar seperti otentisitas teks, bahasa teks dan bahkan kandungan teks Bible itu sendiri. Hal ini tercermin dari pernyataan Duane bahwa </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 28.05pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">“Problem yang mereka (penulis Bible) kemukakan kebanyakan bukan problem kita, dan cara-cara berfikir mereka tidak dapat kita produksi kembali begitu saja pada hari ini. Karena itu dunia Bible umumnya asing bagi kita, dan bahasanya sulit difahami”.<a style="" href="#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[6]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Karena hermeneutika masalah gap antara bahasa modern dan bahasa teks Bible dipersoalkan. Cara penulis-penulis Bible berfikir tentang diri mereka dan cara berfikir masyarakat Kristen modern dianggap berbeda. Dunia teks akhirnya dianggap sebagai representasi dari dunia mitos dan masyarakat modern dianggap mewakili dunia ilmiah. Hermeneutika dianggap jalan terbaik untuk menjembatani kesenjangan ini. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Namun dengan kedua model hermeneutika diatas kalangan teolog Kristen tidak dapat mengatasi problem teks Bible. Mereka dibingungkan oleh pilihan antara<span style=""> </span>mengikuti milieu masyarakat intelektual Barat atau setia pada teks Bible. Huston Smith mencatat bahwa “rasionalisme telah merasuki teologi pada awal Abad Pertengahan, tapi pandangan Kristen masih menguasai pikiran orang Kristen, sehingga mereka berpihak kepada pernyataan Tuhan yang ada dalam Kitab “suci” itu”.<a style="" href="#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[7]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Bukti yang paling jelas adalah ketika kalangan teolog Kristen – Protestan maupun Katholik – bersama-sama menolak penemuan ilmiyah Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) dan Galelio Galilie (1569-1624). </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Ini menunjukkan bahwa di awal abad pertengahan, hermeneutika masih berada dalam sangkar teologi Kristen tapi masih berada dibawah pengaruh pemikiran filsafat dan mitologi Yunani. Ketika teks Bible sendiri mulai digugat dan dan otoritas gereja mulai goyah pengaruh pandangan hidup ilmiah dan rasional Barat (<i>scientific and rational worldview</i>) mulai muncul membawa hermeneutika kepada makna baru yaitu filosofis. Teori-teori hermeneutika yang muncul saat itu sangat dipengaruhi oleh persoalan teks Bible dan otoritas gereja yang hegemonis. Hermeneutika bukan berasal dari tradisi pengkajian dan pemahaman Bible, tapi metode asing yang diadopsi untuk merekayasa teks Bible yang menghadapi problem orisinalitas </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><b><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><b>Dari teologi dogmatis kepada spirit rasionalisme<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Bel pertama untuk pemakaian hermeneutika sebagai <i>the art of interpretation</i> dapat ditemui dalam karya J.C.Dannheucer yang berjudul <i>Hermeneutica Sacra Sive Methodus exponendarum Sacrarum litterarum, </i>(Sacred Method or the Method of Explanation of Sacred Literature),<i> </i>terbit pada tahun 1654<i>.</i> Disitu hermeneutika sudah mulai dibedakan dari <i>exegesis </i>sebagai metodologi interpretasi. Meskipun pengertiannya tetap sama tapi obyeknya diperluas kepada <i>non-Biblical literature</i>.<a style="" href="#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[8]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Sejak terbitnya buku karya J.C.Dannheucer tidak hanya timbul pemahaman hermeneutika yang meloncat keluar konteks Bible, tapi bahkan mulai timbul pandangan bahwa intepretasi teks Bible tidak bisa dibedakan dari interpretasi teks-teks lain. Jadi selain teks Bible itu sendiri secara tekstual bermasalah, mereka sendiri sudah meletakkan Bible sebagai bukan kitab keagamaan yang sakral lagi. Benedictus de Spinoza (1632-1677)<span style=""> </span>dalam karyanya tahun 1670 berjudul <i>Tractatus theologico-politicus </i>(Risalah tentang politik teologi) menyatakan bahwa “standar eksegesis untuk Bible hanyalah akal yang dapat diterima oleh semua”. Gereja Reformasi mengkritik keras buku ini dan kemudian menghentikan peredarannya. Meskipun demikian perlahan-lahan <i>hermeneutika </i>dalam pengertian baru ini diterima sebagai alat penafsiran (exgesis) Kitab Suci, dan juga menjadi pengantar disiliplin ilmu interpretasi.<a style="" href="#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[9]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Tanda-tanda beralihnya diskursus hermeneutika dari teologi yang dogmatis kepada semangat rasionalisme sudah mulai nampak sejak terjadinya gerakan Reformasi Protestan pada abad ke enam belas. Tanda ini bertambah jelas pada periode Pencerahan (<i>Enlightenment</i>) pada abad berikutnya. Pernyataan Spinoza sudah merupakan bukti kuat tergesernya peran teologi dalam hermeneutika.<i> </i>Di saat itu masyarakat Eropah sudah cenderung kepada penggunaan akal dan tidak lagi percaya pada agama dan otoritas tradisional. Cita-cita terwujudnya masyarakat liberal, sekuler dan demokratis mulai muncul perlahan-lahan. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Perkembangan makna hermeneutika dari sekedar pengantar ilmu interpretasi menuju kepada metodologi pemahaman, dilontarkan oleh seorang pakar filololgi Friedriech Ast (1778-1841). Dalam bukunya <i>Grundlinien der Grammatik Hermenutik und Kritik </i>(<i>Elements of Grammar, Hermeneutic and Criticism</i>) Ast membagi pemahaman terhadap teks menjadi 3 tingkatan: 1) pemahaman historis, yakni pemahaman berdasarkan pada perbandingan teks dengan teks yang lain. 2) pemahaman ketata-bahasaan, yaitu merujuk kepada pemahaman makna kata pada teks; dan 3) pemahaman spiritual, yakni pemahaman yang merujuk kepada semangat, wawasan, mentalitas dan pandangan hidup pengarang, tapi terlepas dari konotasi teologis ataupun psikologis. Disini konteksnya nampak sekali sudah diluar kitab Bible. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Pada tingkat ini pergeseran diskursus hermeneutika dari teologi ke filsafat masih berkutat pada perubahan fungsi hermeneutika dari teori interpretasi teks Bible secara rasional menjadi pemahaman segala teks selain Bible. Disini hermeneutika berkembang dalam milieu yang didominasi oleh para teolog yang telah bersentuhan dengan pemikiran filsafat Barat. Faktor yang lebih dominan dan bertanggung jawab dalam perkembangan hermeneutika saat itu adalah perubahan pandangan hidup para teolog Kristen yang dipengaruhi oleh gerakan Pencerahan dan modernisasi yang terjadi di Barat. Teori-teori yang dikemukakan sudah tentu dalam konteks teologi Kristen dan pemikiran masyarakat Eropah masa itu.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><b>Dari teologi protestan kepada filsafat <o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Perkembangan hermeneutika dari diskursus teologi menjadi pembahasan filsafat bersamaan dengan perubahan pandangan hidup masyarakat Barat Modern dan Postmodern. Abad ke 18 dianggap sebagai awal periode berlakunya proyek modernitas, yaitu pemikiran rasional yang menjanjikan pembebasan (liberasi) dari irrasionalitas mitologi, agama dan khurafat.<a style="" href="#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[10]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Ini sebenarnya adalah gerakan sekularisasi yang mengarah pada desakralisasi ilmu dan institusi sosial. James E.Crimmins mencatat bahwa ketika gerakan desakralisasi atau dalam bahasa Weber ‘disenchantment’ terjadi di Barat, ilmu diletakkan dalam posisi berlawanan dengan agama yang dianggap penyebab kemunduran.<a style="" href="#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[11]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Alain Finkielkraut dalam buknya <i>The Defeat of the Mind </i>menggambarkan nasib agama dizaman modern di Barat. <span dir="rtl" lang="AR-SA"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 37.4pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">What they called God was no longer the Supreme Being, but collective reason……From now on God existed within human intelligence, not beyond it, guiding people’s action and shaping their<span style=""> </span>thoughts without their knowing it. Instead of communicating with all creatures, as His namesake did, by means of the Revelation, God no longer spoke to man in a universal tongue; He now spoke within him, in the language of his nation.<a style="" href="#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[12]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Maksudnya apa yang disebut Tuhan bukan lagi Yang Mahakuasa, tapi telah berubah menjadi akal kolektif. Jadi Tuhan berada dalam akal manusia, bukan diluarnya, dan tidak mengarahkan pekerjaan orang dan menentukan pemikiran mereka tanpa mereka ketahui. Medium komunikasi Tuhan dengan ciptaanNya bukan lagi melalui wahyu, tapi melalu bahasa universal, Ia berbicara dalam diri manusia dalam bahasa bangsanya. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Di dalam milieu pemikiran inilah makna hermeneutika berubah menjadi metodologi filsafat. Munculnya Fredrich Ernst Daniel Schleiermacher (1768-1834) menandai babak baru metode filsafat hermeneutika. Alumni dan dosen Universitas Halle (1805) ini dianggap sebagai filosof meskipun ia bekerja sebagai seorang pendeta. Materi kuliahnya “<i>universal hermeneutic</i>” menjadi rujukan Gadamer dan berpangaruh terhadap pemikiran Weber dan Dilthey. Ia dianggap sebagai filosof Jerman pertama yang terus menerus memikirkan persoalan-persoalan hermeneutika. Karena itu ia dianggap sebagai Bapak hermeneutika modern dan juga pendiri Protestan Liberal. Ini semua adalah latar belakang sosial yang lebih banyak menguasai hermeneutikanya. Filsafatnya tergolong sebagai idealis absolute dan pandangannya terhadap agama sama seperti Kant. Beragama tidak bisa diartikan sebagai usaha mencapai ilmu transcenden, sebab ilmu seperti ini baginya tidak mungkin dicapai. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Filsafat hermeneutikanya bermula dari pertanyaan universal: bagaimana pemahaman manusia dan bagaimana ia terjadi? Dalam hal ini ia mengajukan dua teori pemahaman hermeneutikanya: <i>pertama</i> pemahaman ketata-bahasaan (<i>grammatical understanding</i>) terhadap semua ekspresi, dan <i>kedua </i>pemahaman psikologis terhadap pengarang. Dari bentuk kedua ini Schleiermacher lalu mengembangkan apa yang ia sebut <i>intuitive understanding</i> yang secara operasionalnya merupakan suatu kerja rekonstruksi. Artinya hermeneutika bertugas untuk merekonstruksi pikiran pengarang. Tujuan pemahaman bukanlah makna yang diperoleh dari dalam materi subyek, tapi lebih merupakan makna yang muncul dalam pandangan pengarang yang telah direkostruksi tersebut. Jadi interpretasi yang benar, menurut teori Schleiermacher, tidak saja melibatkan pemahaman konteks kesejarahan dan budaya pengarang tapi juga pemahaman terhadap subyektifitas pengarang. Dan ini hanya dapat dilakukan dengan kegiatan devinasi, <i>an act of devination</i> (ramalan, dugaan) yang dengan itu interpreter menghadirkan kembali kesadaran pengarang. Jika kesadaran pengarang dillihat dalam konteks cultural yang lebih luas, maka ia dapat memahami pengarang lebih baik dari pengarang memahami dirinya sendiri. Teori tentang interpretasi psikologis banyak mendapat kritikan karena subyektifitasnya.<a style="" href="#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[13]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Dalam kaitannya dengan al-Qur’an teori Schleiermacher ini irrelevan tapi juga irrasional. Karena manusia tidak mungkin memproduksi kembali sikap mental Tuhan ketika mewahyukan al-Qur’an. </p> <p style="text-align: justify;">Hermeneutika yang berkembang dari milieu tradisi filsafat fenomenologi Husserl di Jerman tidak hanya melahirkan Heidegger dengan interpretasi ontologisnya, tapi juga Hans-Georg Gadamer. Gadamer dengan karyanya <i>Truth and Method </i>tidak memaknai hermeneutika sebagai penerjemah eksistensi tapi pemikiran dalam tradisi filsafat. Sebenarnya ia tidak menganggap hermeneutika sebagai metode, sebab baginya pemahaman yang benar adalah pemahaman yang mengarah pada tingkat ontologis bukan metodologis. Artinya kebenaran dapat dicapai bukan melalui metode tapi melalui dialektika, dimana lebih banyak pertanyaan dapat diajukan. Dan yang sedemikian itu harus difahami sebagai filsafat praktis (<i>practical philosophy</i>)”.<a style="" href="#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[14]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> </p> <p style="text-align: justify;">Dia umpamakan pemahaman manusia sebagai interpretasi-teks. Dalam proses memahami teks selalu didahului oleh pra-pemahaman sang pembaca dan kepentingannya untuk berpatisipasi dalam makna teks. Kita mendekati teks selalu dengan seperangkat pertanyaan atau dengan potensi kandungan makna dalam teks. Melalui horizon ekspektasi inilah kita memasuki proses pemahaman yang terkondisikan oleh realitas sejarah.<span style=""> </span>Jadi jika para interpreter kitab Bible mencoba masuk dalam teks asli dengan maksud untuk memahami teks tersebut sesuai dengan maksud penulisnya, maka hermeneutika dalam pengertian Gadamer adalah interpretasi teks sesuai dengan konteks ruang dan waktu interpreter. <i><span style=""> </span></i>Inilah yang ia sebut dengan <i>effective historical consciousness </i>yang struktur utamanya adalah bahasa yang disebut juga sebagai <i>the horizon of a hermeneutical ontology</i>. </p> <p style="text-align: justify;">Jurgen Habermas (1929-<span style=""> </span>) mengkritik hermeneutika Gadamer sebagai kurang memiliki kesadaran sosial yang kritis. Kalau bagi Gadamer pemahaman didahului oleh pra-penilaian (<i>pre-judgement</i>), bagi Habermas pemahaman didahului oleh kepentingan. Yang menentukan horizon pemahaman adalah kepentingan sosial (<i>social interest</i>) yang melibatkan kepentingan kekuasaan (<i>power interest</i>) sang interpereter dan khususnya komunitas-komunitas interpreter yang terlibat dalam interpretasi. Disini Habermas sangat dipengaruhi oleh kondisi sosial keagamaan disaat mana interpretasi Bible bertujuan untuk memenuhi kepentingan kelompok yang mapan ataupun tertindas. </p> <p style="text-align: justify;">Teori hermeneutika lain muncul dari seorang seorang Katholik kelahiran Perancis yang menjadi tawanan perang dunia kedua di Jerman, bernama <span style="display: none;">aaaa<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify;">Ricoeur (1913- ). Keterlibatannya dengan filsafat fenomenologi di Perancis membuat gebrakannya dalam bidang hermeneutika dianggap sebagai pemersatu filsafat Eropa dan Anglo-Amerika. Dalam teori interpretasinya Ricoeur mencoba mencari integrasi dialektis dari dikhotomi Dilthey yaitu penjelasan (<i>erklaren</i>) dan pemahaman ontologis (<i>verstehen</i>). Ricoeur berangkat dari perbedaan yang fundamental antara paradigma intepretasi teks tertulis (<i>discourse</i>) dan percakapan (<i>dialogue</i>). Teks berbeda dari percakapan karena ia terlepas dari kondisi asal yang menghasilkannya, niat penulisnya sudah kabur, audiennya lebih umum dan referensinya tidak dapat lagi dideteksi. Konsep yang utama dalam pandangan Ricoeur adalah bahwa begitu makna obyektif di ekspressikan dari niat subyektif sang pengarang, maka berbagai interpretasi yang dapat diterima menjadi mungkin. Makna tidak diambil hanya menurut pandangan hidup (<i>worldview</i>) pengarang, tapi juga menurut pengertian pandangan hidup pembacanya.<a style="" href="#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[15]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> </p> <p style="text-align: justify;">Dari uraian diatas jelaslah bahwa makna hermeneutika sebagai filsafat telah bergeser mengikuti pandangan hidup<span style=""> </span>tokohnya. Schleiermacher dengan latar belakangnya sebagai pendeta Protestan Liberal dan idealis absolute merubah makna hermeneutika dari sekedar kajian teks Bible menjadi metode memahami dalam pengertian filsafat. Dilthey sebagai pakar metodologi ilmu-ilmu sosial membelokkan makna hermeneutika menjadi metode kajian historis. Heiddeger dengan latar belakang filsafat fenomenologinya membawanya kepada kajian ontologis. Gadamer sebagai filosof yang besar dilingkungan filsafat fenomeologi Jerman juga menekankan kajian ontologis Heiddeger tapi dalam konteks tradisi pemikiran filsafat Barat. Namun Habermas dengan lingkungan filsafat social Marxis menggeser makna hermeneutika kepada pemahaman yang diwarnai oleh kepentingan (<i>interest</i>), khususnya kepentingan kekuasaan. Itulah sebabnya ia mengkritik Gadamer karena tidak menekankan kesadaran sosial yang kritis. Sedangkan Ricour dengan milieu filsafat fenomenologi dan eksistensialisnya mensyaratkan adanya aspek pandangan hidup interpreter sebagai faktor utama dalam pemahaman hermeneutisnya. </p> <p style="text-align: justify;">Pergeseran yang terjadi diseputar makna hermeneutika dalam konteks filsafat diatas, sejatinya melibatkan pergeseran obyek materi pemahaman, cara dan sikap mental subyek yang memahami dan lingkungan yang mempengaruhi obyek dan juga subyek. Tapi karena kuatnya pengaruh filsafat fenomenologi maka kebenaran obyektif dipersoalkan. Gellner bahkan menyimpulkan bahwa kebenaran obyektif akan digantikan oleh kebenaran hermeneutika, sebab kebenaran hermenutika lebih mengutamakan subyektifitas obyek yang dikaji dan pengkajinya, dan bahkan subyektifitas pembaca atau pendengar.<a style="" href="#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[16]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <b><o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><b><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><b><o:p> </o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><b>Kesimpulan anasis<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Uraian diatas membuktikan bahwa hermeneutika, baik dalam bentuk intepretasi alegoris maupun katatabahasaan, adalah metode pemahaman yang merupakan produk kebudayaan, mitologi dan filsafat Yunani. Jadi ia tidak bebas nilai. Ia pada mulanya masuk dan berkembang dalam milieu teologi Kristen tanpa resistensi, karena dalam tradisi intelektual Kristen sendiri tidak terdapat Ilmu intepretasi yang lahir dari konsep teologi mereka. Tapi hermeneutika kemudian justru menimbulkan perpecahan dikalangan penganut Kristen. Pertentangan antara pendukung intepretasi alegoris dan literal atau <i>grammatical </i>hakekatnya bukan menunjukkan resistensi tapi justru merupakan bukti dominasi pemikiran Plato dan Aristotle. Bahkan Van A Harvey menyatakan dengan jelas bahwa karena perdebatan dalam soal hermeneutika inilah akhirnya<sub></sub> mengakibatkan timbulnya dua kelompok Protesan Liberal dan Kristen Ortodoks.<a style="" href="#_ftn17" name="_ftnref17" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[17]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> Masalahnya, mereka memerlukan hermeneutika karena problem otentisitas Bible, tapi dengan mengadopsi hermeneutika berarti mereka mengubur otoritas dalam tradisi mereka. Terlepas dari problem otentisitas Bible dan otoritas memahaminya, impak yang ditimbulkan akibat mengadopsi hermeneutika bagi Kristen sudah merupakan bukti bahwa hermeneutika itu tidak netral. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Ini juga bukti bahwa hermeneutika itu tidak dapat di’adopsi’ begitu saja, ia perlu di’adapsi’ kedalam realitas teologi Kristen. Namun, nampaknya mekanisme untuk itu tidak terdapat dalam tradisi intelektual Kristen, sehingga kajian hermeneutika secara teologis segera melompat kepada kajian filsafat. Ketika makna hermeneutika memasuki diskursus filsafat, tradisi intelektual Barat telah siap dengan mekanisme pem-Baratan. Nilai-nilai pandangan hidup Barat yang sekuler dan anti agama ikut mulai memberi makna baru terhadap hermeneutika. Oleh sebab itu ketika hermeneutika telah menjadi metode filsafat ia sudah bukan lagi metode interpretasi kitab suci, dan jika ditrapkan untuk kajian kitab suci ia akan merusak sendi-sendi agama itu. Terbukti Bible yang dalam diskursus teologi diletakkan sebagai kitab sacral, dalam diskursus filsafat dianggap sama dengan teks-teks lain dan bahkan dianggap tidak dapat dijadikan pedoman untuk mengartikulasikan keimanan Kristen. </p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-top: 6pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Karena ilmu dilahirkan oleh pandangan hidup maka ia memiliki presupposisi sendiri dalam bidang etika, ontologi, cosmologi dan metafisika. Disinilah sejatinya yang menentukan bahwa ilmu (khususnya ilmu-ilmu sosial), termasuk hermeneutika, itu tidak netral. seperti yang telah dibahas bahas diatas. Karena setiap konsep dalam suatu peradaban selalu diwarnai oleh pandangan hidup masing-masing, maka Alparslan menegaskan bahwa suatu peradaban tidak dapat begitu saja mengimport suatu konsep kecuali dengan proses modifikasi konseptual atau apa yang disebut “borrowing process”.<a style="" href="#_ftn18" name="_ftnref18" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[18]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span style=""> </span>Jika modifikasi konsep itu melibatkan konsep-konsep dasar yang lebih utama maka perubahan paradigma (<i>Paradigm Shift</i>) tidak dapat dielakkan lagi. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Sebagai sebuah metode filsafat sejatinya hermeneutika penuh dengan presuposisi epistemologis yang bersumber pada konsep realitas dan kebenaran dalam perspektif Barat. Pemahaman terhadap realitas hanya dibatasi dalam konteks kesejarahan, sosial, kekuasaan yang kesemuanya bersifat subyektif.<span style=""> </span>Pemahaman terhadap manusia yang inheren dengan eksistensi dirinya merupakan basis bagi setiap proses pemahaman. Aspek-aspek realitas bersifat metafisis, kosmologis, dan ontologis tidak menjadi pertimbangan penting. Lebih-lebih ketika metafisika disingkirkan dari diskursus filsafat hermeneutika, ia semakin bertambah jauh dari mungkin untuk ditrapkan dalam diskurus keagamaan.<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Dalam kata pengantar buku Jean Grondin yang berjudul <i>Introduction to Philosophical Hermeneutic</i> Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900-1998) seroang tokoh filsafat heremenutika menulis begini:</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 37.4pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Istilah hermeneutika merujuk kepada sejarah yang panjang dan masih banyak yang perlu dipelajari untuk hari ini. Jadi universalitas (hermeneutika) pun masih merupakan tantangan, bukan dalam konteks pandangan filsafat tapi sebagai tugas filsafat. ….Ketika era metafisika mulai berakhir, dan klaim sains modern dalam memonopoli ilmu pengetahuan berkurang secara otomatis, maka sebagai suatu upaya awal (<i>starting point</i>) untuk mengembangkan suatu universalitas yang murni kita dapat melihat konsep kuno ini (maksudnya <i>hermeneutic </i>pen.). Namun, di zaman Romantis (antara 1775-1830 pen.), hermeneutika berkembang hingga kesuatu titik yang meliputi teori tentang sains kemanusiaan secara menyeluruh. Jadi ia tidak hanya meliputi jurisprudensi dan teologi, tapi juga filologi dan semua disiplin terkait.<a style="" href="#_ftn19" name="_ftnref19" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[19]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a> <span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoBodyText2" style="">Dalam pernyataan Gadamer diatas ada tiga implikasi penting yang bisa ditangkap. <i>Pertama </i>hermeneutika yang berasal dari Yunani dan diadopsi para teolog Kristen sebagai Tafsir Bible itu dicoba dikembangkan menjadi teori sains kemanusiaan.<i>Kedua</i>, hermeneutika muncul dari suatu milleu ilmiah (<i>scientific environment</i>) yang mulai meninggalkan pemikiran metafisis. <i>Ketiga</i>, universalitas hermeneutika sebagai metode masih merupakan tantangan. Dari ketiga implikasi diatas sejatinya sudah dapat difahami bahwa hermeneutika lahir dan berkembang dari suatu peradaban dan pandangan hidupnya (<i>worldview</i>). Oleh karena itu maka hermeneutika sebagai ilmu itu <i>value-laden </i>atau tidak bebas nilai. Ia diwarnai oleh nilai-nilai kultural, religius dan filosofis<span style=""> </span>yang dicerminkan oleh “pandangan hidup” Barat. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Gellner bahkan menganggap kolonialisme di Barat seperiode dengan positivisme, suatu bentuk imperialisme pemikiran, sedangkan dekolonisasi seperiode dengan era hermeneutika, yang secara perlahan-lahan berkulminasi pada postmodernisme. Ia kemudian menghubungkan secara parallel kecenderungan dekolonisasi ini dengan gerakan liberalisasi, feminisme, gerakan minoritas yang tertindas yang marak akhir-akhir ini. Jadi nalar kita dapat memahami dengan jelas bahwa hermeneutika bukan ilmu yang dihasilkan oleh fikiran yang tanpa aspek historisitas dan latar belakang pandangan hidup dan karena itu ia <i>value laden</i>.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Selain itu dari berbagai konsep yang muncul dapat difahami bagaimana problematiknya konsep hermeneutika dalam tradisi intelektual Barat dan juga Kristen. Problematika mana sejatinya tidak terdapat dalam tradisi intelektual Islam. Dalam Islam al-Qur’an telah jelas menekankan keimanan pada sesuatu yang ghaib yang tidak dapat dibukutikan secara empiris. Selain itu antara pesan Tuhan yang universal dan realitas kehidupan manusia tidak ada masalah, karena adanya prinsip harmoni antara ayat-ayat al-Qur’an, ayat-ayat Kauniyyah dan ayat-ayat dalam diri manusia (f<span style="font-family: "AHT Times New Roman","serif";">Ê</span> anfusikum). Ibn Taymiyyah bahkan memformulasikan kesatuan fitrah, yaitu bahwa alam semesta ini diciptakan dengan fitrah sebagaimana juga manusia. Untuk melengkapi fitrah manusia itu Allah menurunkan al-Qur’an yang ia sebut sebagai <i>fitrah munazzzalah.</i> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;">Tren dikalangan modernis Muslim untuk meng’adopsi’ filsafat hermeneutika sebagai alternatif Tafsir al-Qur’an adalah <i>absurd</i>. Kritik-kritik mereka terhadap Tafsir dan <i>ulum al-Qur’an</i> yang lain hakekatnya adalah bukti kegagalan mereka menangkap konsep “tafsir” atau “memahami” (<i>tafaqquh</i>) dalam tradisi intelektual Islam. Kegairahan mereka menggunakan hermeneutika dalam kajian Islam tidak disertai pemahaman terhadap presuposisi-presupposisi metafisis, epistemologis dan ontologis yang mendasarinya. Mereka nampaknya juga tidak mencoba memahami konsep realitas dan kebenaran yang mendasari konsep dan teori hermeneutika dan membedakannya dengan konsep Islam. Akibatnya, secara tidak sadar mereka telah melakukan “dekonstruksi” dan bukan rekonstruksi Islam dan elemen-elemen pandangan hidupnya. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" dir="rtl"><span dir="ltr"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" dir="rtl"><span dir="ltr"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <div style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><br /> <hr align="left" size="1" width="33%"> <!--[endif]--> <div style="" id="ftn1"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span><span dir="ltr"></span><span dir="ltr"></span><span style=""> </span>Thomas Aquinas, “Summa Theolgiae”<i>, </i>terj. Robert M.Grant & David Tracy, dalam <i>A Short History of Interpretation of the Bible</i>, edisi ke 2, Pliadelpia: Fortress, 1984, 88ff</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn2"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[2]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span><span dir="ltr"></span><span dir="ltr"></span><span style=""> </span>Humanisme adalah gerakan yang terpisah dari Rennaisance yang dalam pengertian religius berarti kepercayaan bahwa Tuhan menciptakan manusia untuk melakukan hal-hal yang penting bagi manusia. Tapi gerakan ini akhirnya cenerung anti gerakan sosial dan politik keagamaan. Pada abad ke 20 istilah ini dipakai secara pejoratif oleh postmodernis yang dalam bidang filsafat merujuk kepada Startre. Simon Blackburn, <i>Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</i>, Oxford University Press, 1996, hal.178.<span style=""> </span></p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn3"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: left; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[3]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span><span dir="ltr"></span><span dir="ltr"></span><span style=""> </span>Werner, <i>Theological Hermeneutic</i>, 30.</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn4"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: left; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[4]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span><span dir="ltr"></span><span dir="ltr"></span><span style=""> </span>Smith, Huston, <i>Beyond The Post-Modern Mind</i>, Quest Book, The Theosophical Publishing House, <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Wheaton</st1:City>, <st1:state st="on">Illinois</st1:State>, <st1:country-region st="on">USA</st1:country-region></st1:place>, 1989. 4,5.</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn5"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-left: 11.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -9.35pt; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[5]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span>Untuk lebih detail tentang problem teks Bible lihat George Buchanan Gray, “Bible”, <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, edisi ke 13, hal. 860; juga J. Alberto Soggin, <i>Introduction to the Old Testament: From its Origin to the Closing of the Alexandrian Canon </i><span style=""> </span>(London: SCM Press Ltd., 1976), hal. 18–19.</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn6"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: left; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[6]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span>Duane A. Priebe, “Communicating the Text Today”, <i>Dialog</i>, vol. 7, hal.266.</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn7"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[7]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span>Smith, Huston, <i>Beyond. </i>11.</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn8"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: left; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[8]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span>Richard E.Palmer <i>Hermeneutik</i> <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Evanston</st1:City></st1:place>:Northwestern University Press, 1969, 34.</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn9"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: left; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[9]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span>Rudolf Bultmann, <i>Essays, Philosophical and Theological,</i><st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">London</st1:City></st1:place>, SCM Press, 1955, 235.</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn10"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: left; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[10]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span>David Harvey, <i>The Condition of Postmodernity</i>, <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Cambridge</st1:City></st1:place>, Blackwell, 1991, 12-3.</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn11"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: left; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[11]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span>James E.Crimmins, (ed) <i>Religions, Secularizatin dan Political Thought</i>, <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">London</st1:City></st1:place>, Routledge, 1990, 7.</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn12"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[12]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl" style="font-size: 10pt;"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Alain Finkielkraut, <i>The Defeat of The Mind</i>,<span style=""> </span>(trans. by Judith Friedlander, <st1:place st="on"><st1:placename st="on">New York</st1:PlaceName> <st1:placename st="on">Columbia</st1:PlaceName> <st1:placetype st="on">University</st1:PlaceType></st1:place> Press, 1995, 18.<span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn13"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: left; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[13]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span><span dir="ltr"></span><span dir="ltr"></span><span style=""> </span>Kritik terhadap Schleiermacher dapat dibaca dalam Carl E.Braaten, <i>New Direction in Theology</i>, (<st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Philadelphia</st1:City></st1:place>: The Westminster Press, 1952, 132-33.</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn14"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: left; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[14]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span>Hans-Georg Gadamer, <i>Reason in the Age of<span style=""> </span>Science</i>, tans. Frederick G.Lawrence, <st1:city st="on">Cambridge</st1:City>, <st1:state st="on">Mass.</st1:State>, and <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">London</st1:City></st1:place>, MIT Press, 1981, 112.</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn15"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: left; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[15]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span>P. Ricoeur, ``The Model of Text: Meaningful Action Considered as Text,'' <i>Social Research</i> 38, 1971, 529-62 </p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn16"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: left; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[16]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span>Ernest Gellner, <i>Postmodernism, Reason and Religion</i>, Routledge, <st1:city st="on">London</st1:City> dan <st1:place st="on"><st1:state st="on">New York</st1:State></st1:place>, 1992, 35.</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn17"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: left; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[17]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span>Van A Harvey, “Hermeneutic” dalam <i>The Encyclopedia of Religion</i>, ed. Mercea Eliade, MacMillan Publishing Company, <st1:place st="on"><st1:state st="on">New York</st1:State></st1:place>, 1987, hal. 280-281</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn18"> <p class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: left; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[18]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span><span dir="ltr"></span><span dir="ltr"></span><span style=""> </span>Alparslan Acikgence,<span style=""> </span><i>Islamic Science, Towards<span style=""> </span>Definition</i>, <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Kuala Lumpur</st1:City></st1:place>, ISTAC 1996, 29</p> </div> <div style="" id="ftn19"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 9.35pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -9.35pt; direction: ltr; unicode-bidi: embed;"><a style="" href="#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style=""><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">[19]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></span></a><span dir="rtl"></span><span dir="rtl" style="font-size: 10pt;"><span dir="rtl"></span> </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Jean Grondin, <i>Introduction to Philosophical Hermeneutic,</i>Yale University Press, <st1:state st="on">New York</st1:State>, <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">London</st1:City></st1:place>, 1994, hal X)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> </div>Mahreta Adi Kuncorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09866176018145651029noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5666523219565677057.post-52502414949327161222009-10-29T00:47:00.001-07:002009-10-29T00:47:43.447-07:00Pancasila as the Fundamental Basic of Our National Life<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 200%;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 200%;">Pancasila as the Fundamental Basic of Our National Life<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: 200%;" align="center"><i style=""><span style="font-size: 15pt; line-height: 200%;">Mahreta Adi Kuncoro<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b style="">Pancasila is our national ideology<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Pancasila is the philosophical basic for the foundation of independent <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Prescribed in the Indonesian Constitution, it has been an immovable foundation of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region> since independence. Pancasila consists of five inseparable and mutually qualifying principles:</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">1) belief in the One and Only God</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">2) just and civilized humanity</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">3) the unity of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">4) democracy guided by the inner wisdom in the unanimity arising out of deliberations</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style=""> </span>amongst representatives</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">5) social justice for all the Indonesian people.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Pancasila as the fundamental basic of our national life is the philosophical terminology, and it was represented in the abstract formulation from the five basic principal of <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Pancasila is not a political concept, but it is the result of deeply soul contemplation which based on the broad knowledge and experience. Besides that it is the open-minded ideology to attract, influence and respond the national development as well as international proactively and it must reflect and represent the objective reality thoughts which simultaneously develop in the daily social life.<span style=""> <span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="" lang="IN">George McTurner Kahin in Nationalism and Revolution frankly admires the Pancasila Ideology which so-called “<i style="">The Best Exposition of the History I ever seen</i>” Because of the equal right for every relegion.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Basically, every nation has its own national background and the state ideology that should be appropriate with it accordingly, <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Indonesia</st1:place></st1:country-region> for instance it has many islands with diversities of culture, historical background, and the language and Pancasila initially as the soul manifestation from it. And this paper will explain briefly about the first principal of Pancasila “Belief in the One and Only God” </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b style="">Belief in the One and Only God<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Allah SWT said in Qur’an</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><i style="">We have created you from male and female and made into nations and tribes that you may know each other verily, the most honored </i><span style=""> </span><i style="">you in the sight of Allah<o:p></o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><i style=""><o:p> </o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><i style=""><o:p> </o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The first principal “Belief in the one and only God” has several purposes:</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Realizing the absolute power of God</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Guaranteeing all inhabitants to embrace the chosen religion </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">No force and coercion on inhabitants </li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Having a religion tolerance values</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The government gives the facilitator to a religion growth</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Religion is the fundamental basic of people in the world it is a torch in the gloomy night which enlighten every living things around it, I’ll envisage the position of science in the religion view, for example we want to go to the cave in the night automatically we have to bring along the torch as the main light of ours, The torch is the parable of religion and the five senses is the parable of science, We can see everything around us because of a torch and a vise versa, </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">The development in this country must be carried out by Pancasila people with a high spirit and a pure intention, besides that a religion is the source of motivation and behavioral inspiration in the individual and social life and eventually it is a life view consisting of moral teachings which inevitably can’t get rid of a surrounding society.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Religion has a double function, first as a motivation to grow the positive ethics and prevent the negative ethics. In the other side it functions as the physiological aspect to give a tranquility to a despondent heart, and prevent a flaring passion which would trespass the god order. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Religion also functions as a guidance for all human being, human development as a civil people is reflected in several values such as believing in god, having a good attitude, carrying out Islamic teachings, having a self-confidence, educated, open-minded and having a national consciousness.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">If we trace back to a ‘polis state’ which built by Rasulullah we can witness that there are several religions and beliefs but they can life in a contiguous state because Al-Quran is a universal and as the people guidance which <span style=""> </span>not only revealed to Islamic society but to all human being in the world </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">We have to realize that a human quality being a main concern to develop human<span style=""> </span>resources, the success of building human characters will determine the human development as a whole. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Therefore the future of this country is utterly determined by the human quality particularly a young generation as the backbone of the nation. And we have to put a religion above everything. The use of science without regarding to the norms and moral aspect will bring about the moral abuses, </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Finally Pancasila as the final and immovable ideology which absolutely appropriated with the historical background of Indonesia and hopefully these several diversities would not be a complicated problem but as the main factor to unite and to obtain the common goal of Indonesian people living in welfare and prosperity which colorized by the moral values and Islamic teachings.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;">Although we have a different background, different language, different culture, different accent, different experience but basically we have inherent similarities to build up the nation and uphold the norms and Islamic values. <span style=""> </span></p>Mahreta Adi Kuncorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09866176018145651029noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5666523219565677057.post-10733078368262554962009-10-29T00:45:00.000-07:002009-10-29T00:46:27.799-07:00Good Governance<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Good Governance<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Good governance is inherently has a close relation with the government as the actor who implement every policies to the citizens. There are a lot of meaning and interpretation about what the good government is, but in my opinion that the crucial thing of good governance is on how the process of decision – making and by which the decisions and policies are well implemented. The government actually has a double function. First, focusing and concentrating on the power and the government administration. Second, the government is the actor which has to serve the citizens. This paper will describe briefly about what the government should be and how the government create the good governance for their citizens.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The characteristic of good governance<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style=""> </span>The government should have the 8 characters to create the good governance. The 8 characteristic of good governance are:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraph" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Participation<o:p></o:p></span></strong></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Participation is the important thing of good governance. It is the manifestation of democracy which the citizens play role in the government policies. Participation could be either direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions or representatives. Participation needs to be informed and organized to show that the government actually from the people, by the people and for the people.</span></strong><strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></p> <p class="MsoListParagraph" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-weight: normal;"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></strong><!--[endif]--><strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Rule of Law</span></strong><strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The government requires the legal rule to ease the government in governing the people and also as the full protection of human right for the people. The rule prevents the social disorder such as the violation of human right, the corrupted elites and also as the standard way of thinking of the people.<o:p></o:p></span></strong></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></strong></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><strong><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></strong></p> <p class="MsoListParagraph" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Transparency <o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Transparency means that decisions are taken based on the initial regulation. It also means that information is available and accessible for the people because the people actually as the object of the policies.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraph" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Responsiveness</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Good governance requires that institutions should respond to the people aspirations. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraph" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Consensus oriented</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">There are several actors in a society. Good governance requires mediation or the means of the different interests in society. Each institution hopefully can contribute the input for the government acquiring from the people aspirations and then the government can create the broad and long – term perspective for the people.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraph" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b style=""><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Equity and inclusiveness</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Every people in good governance have the equity of right and the welfare of state. A society’s well being depends on ensuring that all its members feel that they have a part in it and do not feel excluded from the mainstream of society.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraph" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style=""><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Effectiveness and efficiency<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Good governance means that processes and institutions have to produce the concrete results that fulfill the needs of society. The government also should cover the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the environment. The government is to maintain and preserve the natural resources as the unrenewable resources for the people interests.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraph" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in; line-height: 150%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Accountability<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Accountability is a key point of good governance. Not only the governmental institution but also the private sector and civil society must be accountable to the public and the government. Basically, the people, institutions, and the government should hand in hand to create the good governance and it is not just merely the responsibility of the government stakeholder but every single of people who live in the country.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>Mahreta Adi Kuncorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09866176018145651029noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5666523219565677057.post-64413466916444489712009-10-29T00:42:00.000-07:002009-10-29T00:45:49.539-07:00Past and Present of Comparative Politics<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Past and Present of Comparative Politics<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Political science, can be traced back from the ideas of scientist such as; Plato (427–347 BC), author of <i>The Republic (</i>360 BC), and Aristotle (384 – 322 BC), author of <i>Politics </i>(c. 340 BC). In the modern era, the Italian Renaissance political philosopher Nicolo Machiavelli’s (1469–1527) <i>The</i> <i>Prince </i>(1515) and French Enlightenment political thinker Baron de Montesquieu’s (1689–1755) <i>The Spirit of Laws </i>(1748). More recently, in the age of industrialism and nationalism,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Political thought in the United States, a new nation, can be traced back to <i>The Federalist Papers </i>(1787–88), written by Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804), James Madison (1751–1836) and John Jay (1745–1829), to the writings by German émigré Francis Lieber (1800–72), Many teaching colleges existed in the US, the oldest being Harvard, founded in 1636. But the first research university, Johns Hopkins University, was not established until 1876, and a large number of Americans sought training in the<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Social sciences in Europe, and especially in German universities, the most advanced in the world at the time, during the period 1870–1900. And US constituted political science as a discipline and therefore opened the way for the emergence of comparative politics as a field of political science.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The tangible manifestation of the process pioneered by the US were various institutional developments that gave an organizational basis to the autonomization of political science. One new trend was the growing number of independent political science departments. This process of autonomization involved a differentiation between political science and history, the discipline most closely associated with US political science in its early years. Many of the founders of political science had been trained in Germany. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">They differentiate political science from history in two ways. First, according to the motto of the time that “History is past Politics and Politics present History,” political scientists would leave the past as the preserve of historians and focus on contemporary history. Second, they would abstain from history’s aspiration to address all the potential factors that went into the making of politics and focus on setting the limit of question of government and the formal political institutions.</span><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The defining way of the subject matter of political science has similarities and differences with the way two other sister disciplines—economics and sociology—established their identities during approximately the same time.</span><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">5 </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The birth of economics as a discipline was associated with the marginalist revolution and the formation of neoclassical economics, well - defined in Alfred Marshall’s (1842–1924) <i>Principles of Economics </i>(1890); In contrast, sociologists saw themselves establishing a discipline represented as a continuation of the classical social theory of Comte, Tocqueville, Spencer, Durkheim, Marx, Weber; and, defined sociology as the mother discipline, <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The political scientists defined their discipline by betting on specialization and opting for a delimited subject matter. But the way in which the subject matter of political science was defined differed fundamentally from both economics and sociology in another key way. These sister disciplines defined themselves through theory-driven choices: economics introducing a reorientation of classical theory, sociology seeking an extension of classical theory. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">II. THE BEHAVIORAL REVOLUTION, 1921–66<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A first turning point in the evolution of US political science can be dated to the 1921 publication of a manifesto for a new science of politics, which implied<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">a departure from the historical approach embraced by many of the founders of political<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">science in the US, by the University of Chicago professor Charles Merriam (1874–1953)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">(Merriam 1921).</span><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">11 </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">This publication was followed in 1923, 1924, and 1925 by a series of<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">“National Conferences on the Science of Politics,” which were important events for the<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">discipline. It was also followed by the formation of the Social Science Research Council<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">(SSRC), the world’s first national organization of all the social sciences, based largely on Merriam’s proposal to develop the infrastructure for research in the social sciences. </span><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Behavioralism in comparative politics, as in other fields of political science, stood<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">for two distinct ideas. One concerned the proper subject matter of comparative politics.In this regard, behavioralists reacted against a definition of the field that restricted its scope to the formal institutions of government and sought to include a range of informal procedures and behaviors—related to interest groups, political parties, mass communication, political culture, and political socialization—that were seen as key to the functioning of the political system. A second key idea was the need for a scientific<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">approach to theory and methods. Behavioralists were opposed to what they saw as vague, rarified theory and a theoretical empirics, and argued for systematic theory and empirical testing.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The central role given to theory was counterbalanced, however, by some weaknesses. The redefinition of the field’s subject matter instigated by the behavioralists led comparativists to focus on societal actors and parties as intermediary<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">agents between society and the state. politics was cast as a reflection of how social actors performed certain functions or how conflicts about economic interests were resolved politically. In other words, politics was not seen as a causal factor and a sense of the distinctiveness of comparative politics as a field of political science was thus lost.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">III. THE POST-BEHAVIORAL PERIOD, 1967–88<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The powerful position of behavioralism in comparative politics came to an end in the mid-1960s or, more precisely, in 1966. Critiques of behavioralism started earlier, in the mid-1950s, and behavioral work continued after 1966. Moreover, elaborate metatheoretical formulations by leading voices of the behavioral revolution were published in 1965 and 1966 (Easton 1965a; 1965b; Almond and Powell 1966). <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The authors who contributed to the new scholarship were diverse in many regards. Some were members of the generation, born in the 1910s and 1920s, which had brought behavioralism to comparative politics. Part of the new literature was authored by members of the generation born in the 1910s and 1920s and some authors, such as Lipset, had even been closely associated with the behavioral literature. Moreover, many of the younger generation had been trained by behavioralists.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>On the other hand, the decline in consensus around liberal values was not replaced by a new consensus but rather by the coexistence of liberal, conservative, and radical values. This lack of consensus did introduce an element of novelty, in that many of the key debates in the literature confronted authors with different values and in that the link between values and research thus became more apparent than it had been before. But these debates were not organized as a confrontation between a liberal and a new agenda.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The centrality given to distinctly political questions implied a redefinition of the subject matter of comparative politics. This shift did not involve a rejection of standard concerns of behavioralists, such as the study of political behavior and interest groups. But issues such as interest groups were addressed, in the literature on corporatism for example, from the perspective of the state.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style=""> </span>The approach to theorizing also underwent change. Theorizing during this period was less geared to building a new metatheory that would replace structural functionalism,In addition, the use of statistics, introduced in the previous period, continued. As before, attention was given to survey research and the generation of data sets.</span><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">41 </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Moreover, a quantitative literature started to develop on issues such as electoral behavior, public opinion, and democracy.</span><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Thus, even as structural functionalism as a metatheory was largely abandoned when the field of comparative politics altered course in the mid-1960s, the methodological dimension of behavioralism—its emphasis on systematic empirical testing—lived on.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">THE SECOND SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION, 1989–PRESENT<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A new phase in the evolution of comparative politics began with a push to make the field more scientific, propelled in great part by the APSA section on Comparative Politics, constituted in 1989 with the aim of counteracting the fragmentation of the field induced by the area studies focus of much research. The scientists also diverged from earlier theoretical attempts to advance a science of politics in two basic ways. First, the proposed metatheories drew heavily on economics as opposed to sociology, which had been the main source of the old, structural functionalist metatheory. Second, the new metatheories did not lead to a redefinition of the subject matter of comparative politics, as had been the case with behavioralism. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The impact of this new agenda with three prongs—rational choice, formal theory, and quantitative methods—has been notable. Some rational choice analyses in comparative politics had been produced in earlier years.</span><span style="font-size: 7pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> <span style=""> </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">But after 1989 the work gradually became more formalized and addressed a growing number of issues, such as democratization (Przeworski 1991, 2005), ethnic conflict and civil war.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>Mahreta Adi Kuncorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09866176018145651029noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5666523219565677057.post-14465109609123838592009-10-28T20:04:00.000-07:002009-10-28T20:05:53.186-07:00The Role of Youth in Building the ASEAN community 2015<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The Role of Youth in Building the ASEAN community 2015<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Mahreta Adi Kuncoro<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Background<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span style=""> </span>The establishment of the ASEAN Community aims to improve the welfare of all members of ASEAN through economic cooperation and intra-trade as well as among ASEAN members in order to deal with the competition on the economic scope of regional and global. Thus, ASEAN has a strong commitment to realize the mutual objectives through the high competitiveness of each in the context of holistic synergy. If this can be realized, the strategic role of ASEAN free market will have a broad cooperation to make the regional economy more robust and mutually beneficial. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span style=""> </span>There are three major pillars which lead to the ASEAN Community establishment. There are ASEAN Economic Community (AEC), ASEAN Security Community (ASC) and ASEAN Socio Cultural Community (ASCC). These three major pillars directly affect the education sector, meaning that Indonesian student can freely study in the ASEAN countries and vice versa. Therefore, the youth plays a significant role in developing the education quality in dealing with the ASEAN community 2015 which full of competitiveness. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><b style=""><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The Youth and the Importance of Education<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span style=""> </span>In dealing with the ASEAN community in 2015, the role of youth is absolutely needed to develop every aspect of the nation. It’s inevitable that the human resource is something crucial. <span style=""> </span>And the most important thing is on how to prepare the youth for the better of tomorrow and on how to improve the human resources.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The role of youth and education are two factors that can not be separated from one another. Improving the quality of education is the best way to enhance the quality of human resources of Indonesia, it is highly expected that with the increasing of nation's human resources, it will brings about to the maturity of Indonesian people in facing the economic competition as well as the education sector.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span style=""> </span>Based on the global competitiveness report of The World Economic Forum (WEF) 31 October 2007, the competitiveness ranking of Indonesia to The Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) is going down comparing with 2006. From 131 countries, Indonesian Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) is on the 54<sup>th</sup> rank. It is describing the overall of 12 pillars assessed by WEF. For the basic requirement in the sub index of A, Indonesia is on the 82<sup>nd</sup> rank with the lowest level of infrastructure in the 91<sup>st</sup> rank, the macro economic stability in the 89<sup>th</sup> rank, the health and the basic education in the 78<sup>th</sup> rank. As for the efficiency enhancer in the sub index of B, the Indonesian technology readiness is in the 75<sup>th</sup>. Although there are pillars that are on the low ranking, but there is also a pillar in the top – twenty of efficiency enhancers in the sub index of B. It is the market scale which is in the 15<sup>th</sup> rank. It means that Indonesian market opportunity is potentially big but still can not be used effectively. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Therefore, with the various problems and the Indonesian people shortcomings, the increasing of human resources is absolutely necessary in dealing with the ASEAN community which full of competition in a variety of things; economic, cultural, technology, and also education, due to a human role as a major actor in the whole wheel of a nation. Because based on UNESCO data (2000) on the Human Development Index which is involving the rank of education, health, and income per head shows that the human development index decreased progressively in Indonesia. Among the 174 countries in the world, Indonesia is in the 102<sup>nd</sup> rank (1996), 99<sup>th</sup> rank (1997), 105<sup>th</sup> rank (1998), 109<sup>th</sup> rank (1999).<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>The improving of human resources quality can be achieved through the enhancing of educational sector. In order to improve the education quality there are two integrated factors; the role of youth as the main actor and also the government that functions as a facilitator to support educational infrastructure and media needed for the achievement of education quality.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Basically, besides the function of youth as the agent of change, the government role is absolutely required to improve the quality of human resources in welcoming the ASEAN community 2015. The government has to plan 2 programs and undertake it as well as possible. First is the improving of socialization on the importance of Indonesian readiness to the youth in dealing with the ASEAN community 2015.<span style=""> </span>It can be perpetuated by the intensive socialization throughout the educational institutions. The second is improving the educational infrastructure and planning on the IT – based education. It can be achieved by allocating more national budget to the education sector.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The Socialization of youth through the educational institutions in Indonesia on the readiness of the ASEAN community 2015 is needed. It’s completely expected by the intensive socialization of the government, it will stimulate the youth or students to learn more and improve their English skill. Because the English-speaking ability as the international language is required by every single of students in order to compete and play an active role in a regional scope as well as international. So that by the increasing of education quality, they will be ready to welcome their futures and they will be the driving wheel of a nation with a high quality and dedication to the State. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;"><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Building up the human resources through education in early years is needed because the declining of students achievement in the world view. In the case of achievements, September 2004 the United Nations for Development Program (UNDP) has announced the results of studies on the quality of people simultaneously around the world through the report, entitled Human Development Report 2004. In the annual report Indonesia only on the 111<sup>th</sup> position from 177 countries. If it is compared with neighboring countries only, the position of Indonesia is far below it. In the international scale, IEA (International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement) in East Asia showed that the reading skills of elementary students for the fourth grade are on the lowest rank. The average reading test scores for elementary school students: 75.5 (Hong Kong), 74.0 (Singapore), 65.1 (Thailand), 52.6 (Philippines), and 51.7 (Indonesia)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The provision of infrastructures by the government to students through educational institutions is truly important. the provision of infrastructure by the government such as the developing of language laboratories, constructing of schools buildings that are not eligible to use, the provision of free school and creating schools with the international standard are expected to support the students academic activities. Besides that the government should improve the quality of teachers as the main student instructors and increase their welfare.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Closing<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span style=""> </span></span><span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">In welcoming the ASEAN community 2015, we do believe that the youth has a significant role. But we have to analyze deeply to the root of the problem and it is the human resources. The human resources development can be achieved by improving the education sector. The education has the great influence to the youth. It is functioning as the former of the character and the framework of thinking. Therefore the Indonesian government should prepare the present youth for the better of tomorrow by improving the education quality.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>Mahreta Adi Kuncorohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09866176018145651029noreply@blogger.com0